i 

1 



/" o * o, V^ 



AMERICAN MANURES; 



AND 



PAEMBRS' AND PLASTERS' 

G- U I D E. 

COMPRISING 

A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELEMENTS AND COMPOSITION OF 

PLANTS AND SOILS— THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF 

COMPOSTING— THE VALUE OF STABLE MANURE 

AND WASTE PRODUCTS, ETC., ETC., ETC. 

ALSO, 

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF THE PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURED 

FERTILIZERS— THEIR ASSUMED AND REAL VALUE— 

AND A FULL EXPOSE OF THE 

FRAUDS PRACTISED UPON PURCHASERS. 

'<;"■■ COP YRiaHT'c-N'' 

WILLIAM H. BEIJOKNEB^f J^rfe^^'' 

ANALYTICAL AND CONSULTING CHEMIST, ^ ."^^ 

AND 

J. B. CHYNOWETH. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

WILLIAM H. BKUCKNER, 

1872. 



sintered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 

WILLIAM H. BRUCKNER, 

Id the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 






c^o^m^mwim^^rt^ms. 



NO. I. 

From Philadelphia'' s distinguished Lawyer^ Theo. Guyler : 

I have examined tlie several pages of the book entitled 
" American Manures and Farmers' and Planters' Guide," pub- 
lished at Philadelphia, by Chynoweth and Company, 1871, to 
"which you asked my attention. These pages are numbered 214, 
216, 227, 238, 240 and 244. I have also examined the book at 
large sufficiently to enable me to form an idea of its general 
scope and tenor. Assuming the statements of the book to be 
true at the pages indicated, they do not in my opinion transcend 
the bounds of legitimate criticism and are not libellous. The 
language, though severe and strong, is not more strong and 
severe than such facts justify in a book devoted to the useful 
instruction of the people in a preeminently important depart- 
ment of practical knowledge. I could much more easily under- 
stand, that silence and the suppression of such information on 
the part of those possessing it, would be an offence against 
society, than I could that its utterance would be a legal offence 
against the rights of an individual engaged in the perpetration 
of such deceptions. No man has a legal right to mislead and 
deceive the pul)lic. If he does so and injury to any individual 
results therefrom, he is liable in damages. If he does so and is 
exposed, he who exposes him has performed a duty, and not 
committed a wrong. 

(Signed,) THEO. GUYLER. 

NO. II. 

Fro7n the Author of '•'• American Or ape Growers'' Quide^'''' etc. : 

Your book "American Manures and Farmers' and Planters' 
Guide," supplies, most effectually, a want that has long existed, 
and, no doubt, will save millions of dollars to the agricultural 
community, not only from the fearless manner in which you 
have exposed the frauds of the manufacturers of special fertilizers, 
but, also, by the lucid and scientific, yet practical and readily 

ill 



IV COMMENDATIONS. 

understood explanations given. Yon have brought the chemis- 
try and general science of agriculture down to so fine a point 
that the most illiterate cultivator, if he can only read the English 
language, cannot help but know what is wanted to improve his 
land, and su])ply that want at a fair money value. Forty years 
ago, I was just arriving at manhood, and since that time, have 
been actively employed in practical farming and horticulture, and 
can truly state, from actual experience, that many of your deduc- 
tions are perfectly correct. In fact, you have brought before the 
public a greater amount of reliable information, in condensed 
form, than is to be found in Liebig and Johnson combined, or any 
other work of the same kind which I have yet seen. 

(Signed,) WM. CHORLTOK 



NO. III. 

From the North American and United States Gazette^ the leading 
Commercial Paper of Philadelphia : 

The authors premise that strictly scientific writers on the use 
and composition of fertilizers are usually too technical for the 
comprehension of practical men, and the merely practical writers 
record results without elucidating causes or opening the philoso- 
phy involved. They essay to unfold the frauds of manufactured 
manures, of which, it is said, 500,000 tons are sold annually in 
this country, at a cost of $25,000,000, to the farmers. One chap- 
ter is surrendered to an exposition of the elements of manures 
and plants, and the action of one on the other ; another to the 
kind and amount of fertilizer different plants need ; one to the 
composition of soils, and others to the values of fertilizers in 
money. The last chapter is filled -with analyses. There is 
enough in almost any ten pages treating of the patent manures 
and fertilizers to ground as many libel suits. One fertilizer after 
another is shown to be deficient in value, or over-priced, or 
otherwise undesirable, and the authors state how they secured 
the material from which their analyses were made. So far as 
the chemistry of agriculture is involved, the work is admirable. 
We hesitate only over the exposition made of special articles so 
long and highly commended. But conceding the truth of the 
statements, every farmer should use fertilizers, and telescopes 
endless in selecting them. We fail to notice any apparent com- 
mendation of one at the cost of the others, but do see that 
the German fertilizers have a double per cent, of phosphates 
over the best of our own. The book proposes to enable every 
farmer to compost for himself, and so secure a reliable fertilizer. 
The importance of the subject cannot be over-estimated, and tin 
capital at. issue will certainly advertize this work in one way oi 
another strongly. It seems to be thoroughly fair and reliable. 



1 



COMMENDATIONS. V 

NO. IV. 
OUR HOME PHOSPHATES. 

From the Charleston^ 8. C, Courier: 

The manufacture and sale of Superphosphates under theii 
many dit^erent names and varied experimental value have become 
of such importance in this country as to warrant steps being 
taken, not only to protect the planter from injustice, but also in 
the interest of the honest dealer "vvho does give value received 
for money paid. Tlie different Governments of Europe whom 
we are in the habit of calling slow, have long ago said that 
parties selling these articles shall affirm the constituents of their 
compounds and guarantee their proportions, in order that parties, 
whose general knowledge of chemistry may be sufficient for 
ordinary purposes shall, when they wish to use an organic or 
mineral constituent as the food of their crop, get what the}'" pay 
for, or have the means of redress. 

Our attention has been forcibly called to the subject by a care- 
ful perusal of a book laid ui)on our table purporting to be Amer- 
ican 3Ianures, their money value, by James Bennett Chynoweth, 
late Superintendent of Fertilizer Works, and William H. Bruck- 
ner, Ph. D., Analytical and Consulting Chemist, Philadelphia. 
A careful perusal will repay the planter and farmer, also those 
interested in tlie sale of Superphosphates. It is written in plain 
language and devoid of the symbols and technical character of 
the terms of Science. It is especially due from our Charleston 
manufacturers of Superphosphates that they give as wide a cir- 
culation as possible to the public of the valuable information 
conveyed in this publication. 

If one-half of what is told of the many subterfuges and false 
proportions put upon our planting community by our Northern 
manufacturing friends is true, the market of the United States is 
in our hands, and we only need to use the resources which Provi- 
dence has committed to us and their proper development, which 
ordinary intelligence should give, in order to obtain that con- 
trolling influence in our markets, which the possession of in- 
exhaustible beds of Natim Bone Pliosphate entitle us. In any 
event, the natural course of trade ought in time to give us this 
control ; but with the impetus which this description of facts, 
properly ventilated, should produce, Charleston ought at one 
bound to step to the front rank, in the United States at least, as a 
manufacturer of fertilizers. 

We have taken the money value to the consumer of fourteen 
of the fertilizers mentioned in this publication, the names of 
which were most familiar to us, and some of whom are as house- 
hold words over the Cotton States, and to find it to vary from 
four 96-100 dollars for the lowest value up, with variations to 
thirty-six 93-100 dollars. These fertilizers are sold at the place 
of manufacture at from forty-five to fifty-six dollars per ton of 



VI COMMENDATIONS. 

2000 pounds. Now if our planting friends experienced so much 
benefit as their many flattering encomiums sliow, from so small 
a value received in proportion to the outlay made, how much 
more favorable would have been the reports, and how much 
more satisfactory the state of their money resources, had they 
received a fair value for the amount paid ? These writers state 
that there is consumed in the United States to-day five hundred 
thousand tons of fertilizers at a cost to the consumers of twenty- 
five millions of dollars. How bright a vista of future prosperity 
looms up in future for us if we only use our best efforts to cen- 
tralize this trade, so immense in its young proportion, and direct 
its regenerating influences over our much divided low country 
of South Carolina. The larger proportion of our community 
do not realize how large an influence the possession of these 
phosphate beds, properly developed, will have on our commercial 
position, and it will well become us in the future to use some 
efforts for home prosperity, and devote some time and capital 
for the proper management of oiir home institutions. 

NO. Y. 

From the Journal of Applied Chemistry, publisJied simultane- 
ously in New York, Philadelphia and Boston : 

They carry a steady lance and strike pretty hard blows, and 
we should advise every farmer who proposes to buy fertilizers to 
read this book before he makes too large an investment. An 
accurate knowledge of the scientific part of this book would save 
every farmer the time and expense of many useless experiments. 
There is a large amount of information condensed into a small 
space, and so far as we have been able to detect from a hasty 
perusal, this information is carefully selected and correctly given 
according to the latest and best authorities. Some controversial 
portions of the work might, perhaps, have found a better place 
in the columns of influential newspapers, but we do not object 
to them as they add piquancy and spice to the feast the authors 
have afforded lis. It is a pity that a few dishonest manufacturers 
of fertilizers have brought the business into such ill-repute, and 
the only remedy would appear to be just such an exposure of 
the tricks of the trade as is here given. We commend the book 
to the notice of our agricultural readers. 



The work will be sent by mail, postage paid, to any address, 
by remitting the price, $1.50. 

Address, WILLIAM H. BRUCKNER, 

Monroe, Michigan. 

Agents loanted in every ToionsMp in the United States. Liberal 
inducements offered, v 



PREFACE TO THE SECOiXD EDITION. 



Mr. Chynoweth's connection with ^^ American Ma- 
nures '^ having ceased, it affords the author pleasure in 
announcing that the first edition of the work has been 
exhausted, and thanking the public for their kind 
patronage of the same. While he is conscious that 
certain parties put forth all their energies to suppress 
the work in its infancy, he is glad to say that success 
has not crowned their efforts, as is evinced by this 
revised edition. And it is hoped, not only by him, but 
he trusts by all who have the welfare of their fellow- 
beings at heart, that subsequent editions may follow in 
quick succession. 

It is the writer's intention to embrace in future 
editions of the work analyses, not only of manures re- 
presenting those which have been examined, but of 
others ; and judging from the following quotation of a 
letter from a manufacturer of fertilizers, dated Nov. 
29th, he will not be surprised to find a marked improve- 
ment in the quality of the former. 

" The book has exercised a great influence on the 
fertilizing business, and has j^ut thousands of dollars 

vii 



Vlll PREFACE. 

into the pockets of the fanners. Every manufacturer 
has increased the quality of his article. The State of 
Delaware employs a State Chemist, and all manufac- 
turers must have their fertilizers analyzed by that 
chemist before they are allowed to sell in that State, 
so that there was a fair chance to observe the rise of the 
Phosphate Business.'' 

Immediately after the publication of " Anieriean 
Manures/' Messrs. Wattson & Clark, manufacturers of 
Superphosphate of Lime, No. 135 North Water street, 
Philadelphia, while candidly admitting the correctness 
of analyses and fairness of criticism of their product^ 
informed the writer that they manufacture a superphos- 
phate of lime (never found in the market in bags), 
which they warr^ant to contain 10 per cent, of soluble 
phosphoric acid (anhydrous), and which in quantity 
they are willing to sell at the price laid down in this 
book, namely, 12 J cents per pound, for soluble phos- 
phoric acid; or, in other words, they charge for the 
above superphosphate, $25 per short ton. 

This statement is made, because justice demands it ; 
and farmers desirous of getting the worth of their money ^ 
would do well to club together to purchase such an 
article in quantity. Subsequent division to meet the 
wants of each purchaser could easily be effected. 

WILLIAM H. BRUCKNER. 

March, 1812. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



Knowledge is indispensably necessary to 
better the condition of mankind. The posses- 
sion of the information that will enable us to 
procure what we need, is oftentimes more valu- 
able than the possession of the same without 
such knowledge ; the advantages of the latter 
are temporary, those of the former are perma- 
nent. 

To be warned of danger is better than to be 
armed to resist it. When the wrongs and im- 
positions practised on communities are fully 
exposed, they have no one to blame but them- 
selves for their continuance. It has ever been 
considered the duty of each member of a com- 
munity to do all in his power to expose and 
redress existing wrongs, especially when those 
wrongs affect the vital interests of all. From 
these considerations we feel it a duty, and we 
claim the right of giving freely the knowledge 



4 PREFACE. 

we possess on the subjects treated in this book. 
We shall unmask practices that have been 
backed up by favorable reports, and artfully 
designed statements, falsely claiming to be bene- 
fits conferred on the community, and which, from 
a want of knowledge to distinguish real from 
imaginary good, have passed currently as such. 
We shall not attempt to disprove the statements 
of dishonest manufacturers of fertilizers by mere 
reasoning; we only desire the reader closely to 
scrutinize and compare the facts as given, and 
make his own deductions. We challenge the 
parties assailed to disprove them. 

We expect to offend some: when wrongs are 
exposed, this is inevitable; and those parties may 
endeavor to refute the statements made. Our 
justification is written down in the following 
pages. In the language of Cicero, w-e shall 
'' Neither dare to say anything that is false, nor 
fear to say anything that is true." 

Philadelphia, 
May 1st, 1871. 






CONTENTS. 



< < • • ► 



CHAPTER I. 

IMPOHTANT PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. (Page 11-31.) 

11, Importance of our work. — 12, Two kinds of works on 
farming. — 13, 1st kind, and remarks — 14, 2d kind, and re- 
marks. — 15, Operations of the farm may be intelligently per- 
formed. — 16, Farming may be made scientific — Book knowledge 
necessary. — 17, Progress of other arts. — 18, Terse sayings — 
Negligence and indifference of farmers. — 19, Effect of knowledge 
— What we intend to show. — 20, Effect of this upon farmers — 
Object of concentrated manures — Remark. — 21, Analyses of Dr. 
Bruckner — How samples wer-e obtained — Other fertilizers to be 
examined — Made manures a special study. — 23, Secrecy and 
frauds of manufacturers. — 24, Lying circulars. — 25, Detection 
difficult — Immense profits. — 26, Object of book. — 27, Necessity 
of inspection. — 28, Agricultural Department at Washington re- 
miss. — 29, All interested in agriculture. — 30, Practical experi- 
ments to be made. 

CHAPTER II. 

ELEMENTS OF MANURES AND PLANTS. (Page 31-77.) 

31, Definition of manure — Two objects to be effected — A per- 
fect manure. — 32, Loss of manures — -Materials abundant. — 33, 
Gasc'ous elements — Elements with oxygen forming acids — Bases 
—Alkalies — Elements unite in definite proportions. — 34, Defini- 

5 



6 CONTENTS. 

tion of element — A compound — An oxide — A salt — Chemical 
aflanity. — 35, Cohesion. — Gaseous Elements. — 35, Oxygen — Its 
properties, etc. — One-fifth of the atmosphere — Half of animals 
and plants — Source of, in plants — Exhaled by plants, — 37, Hy- 
drogen — Its properties — How existing in nature — In plants and 
animals — Its weight — What it forms — How assimilated by 
plants. — 38, Garhuretted Hydrogen — Where found — Marsh gas — 
Fire damp — Present in soils. — 39, Sulphuretted Hydrogen — How 
formed — Its properties — In marshy places — Hurtful to vegetation 
— Effects in soils. — 41, Nitrogen — Its properties — Forms nitric 
acid with oxygen — Forms ammonia with hydrogen. — 42, Plants 
do not absorb it irom atmosphere. — 43, Experiments of Lawes 
and others on rain water — Conclusion therefrom. — 44, Chlorine 
— Its properties — Sources, etc. — 45, Elements fouming Acids 
— Silicon — Its appearance — Forms silicic acid — Silicates of pot- 
ash, lime, and magnesia — Their use. — 45, Silica — Crystallized 
and amorphous — Its properties. — 46, Soluble silica-^How formed, 
9,nd uses of. — 47, Value of soluble silica — Sources of it. — 48, Car- 
bon — Its joroperties. — 48, Carbonic Acid — How formed. — 49, Its 
uses to plants — Uses of humus or mould. — 50, Pliosphorus — Its 
properties, etc. — Phosphoric Acid — Its composition and proper- 
ties — 50, Bone Phosphate of Lime — Its composition, etc. — 51, 
Neutral Phosphate of Lime — Its composition, etc. — 51, Super- 
phosphate of Lime — Its composition — How formed. — 52, Its ac- 
tion in soils, and Ronna's report on its action. — 57, Sulphur — 
Its properties, etc. — 58, Sulphuric Acid — Its composition and 
uses — Cheapest source to farmer.^ELEMENTS fouming bases. — 
58, Calcium — Its properties, etc. — 59, Oxide of Qfilcimn, or quick 
lime— Its composition. — 59, Carbonate of Lime — Its composition, 
etc. — How made quick lime, etc. — 59, Hydrate of Lime — Its com- 
position. — 60, How lime should be slacked. — Marls rich in carbo- 
nate of lime — Quick lime more valuable than carbonate. — 61, Neu- 
tralizes acids in soils — Liberates ammonia. — 62, Effect on iron 
pyrites — On silicates of soda and potash — On salt — Its physical 
effects. — 63, What soils need lime. — 64, How and what quantity 
should be applied.— 65, Sulphate of Lime — Its composition — At- 
tracts little moisture. — 66, Its benefits due to sulphuric acid — 
Why but little required. — 66, Magnesium — Its properties. — 67, 
Magnesia — Its composition — Its action — Cheap sources of — Too 
much hurtful. — 68, Iron — Forms two oxides—Protoxide injuri- 



CONTENTS. 7 

ons to vegetation. — G9, Peroxide of Iroii — Its composition — Uses 
in soils — Effect of too much — How to correct it, and effects. — 
70, Sulphate of Iron — How formed — Too much hurtful — How 
corrected — Iron pyrites useful. — 70, Potassium — Its properties — 
Oxidizes readily — Forms caustic potasli. — 71, Potash — Its proper- 
ties — Importance to plants — How and where found in nature — 
72, Potasli from plant and wood ashes — Wood ashes as manure. — 
7H, Sodium — Its properties — Forms caustic soda — Soda now made 
from common salt. — 74, Nitrate of Soda — Where found — Its 
uses in soils — Soda in plants — Cheapest source of it — Gommon 
Salt — Its composition. — 75, Action of salt in soils— Injurious to 
some plants and trees — Exterminates insects and worms — How 
much wheat requires. 

CHAPTER III. 

COMPOSITION OF PLANTS, AND KINDS AND AMOUNT OP MANURES 

BEQuiKED. (Page 77-104.) 

77, Elements vary but little in plants of same kind — Effects, if 
not so — First lesson of farmers — Popular idea of action of ma- 
nure. — 79, Potash^ Silicon^ and Lime Plants. — 80, Remarks on. — 
81, Importance of studying the tables. — 82, Tal)le of composition 
of plants. — 83, Albumen and Gluten — Their uses ^Starch and 
Gum — Their uses and mode of action. — 84, Woody fibre — Of no 
use as food — Theory of fattening. — 85, Table of inorganic ele- 
ments of plants— A key to application of fertilizers — Remarks on 
table. — 86, Composition of wheat and straw — Remarks — Ash of 
plants unilbrm. — 88, Crops on ordinary land. — 89, English far- 
mers. — 89, Wheat — Analysis of grain and straw — Remarks.— 90, 
Indian (7cni— Analysis of — Remarks. — 91, Bye — Analysis of— 
Remarks.— 92, Oats — Analysis of — Remarks. — 93, Parley — • 
Analysis of — Remarks, — 94, Buckwheat — Analysis of — Remarks. 
• — 94, Potatoes — Analysis of — Remarks. — 95, Glover Hay — An- 
alysis of — Remarks. — 96, Tobacco and Gotton — Analysis of — Re- 
marks. — 98, What should be applied to each crop — Average crop 
"In thirty States — In Pennsylvania — In South Carolina. — 99, Re- 
marks. — 100, What reader should have learned. — 101, What 
has been raised in four years — What was taken from the soil — 
What will restore it. — 102, Bad effects of overcropping in United 
States and West Indies. 



8 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

OEIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS, ETC. (Page 104-123.) 

104, Knowledge of soils necessary — Usual considerations in 
purchasing a farm — The true test of value. — 106, Analysis of soil 
near the Zuyder Zee. — 107, Amount of elements in this soil — ■ 
Last how long — How long cropped. — 109, Analysis of a sterile 
soil — Remarks — 109, Analysis of supposed barren soil — Plow 
benefitted. — 110, What plants must have — What farmer shoul(J, 
do. — 111, Sand and clay the bulk of soils — Alluvial soils — Dilu- 
vial soils — Rocks that form fertile soils. — 112, Granite, quartz, 
felspar, mica, how these become soils. — 113, Potash in felspar. — 
114, Oarhonate of Lime — Its composition and origin. — 114, 8ul- 
phate of Lime — Its ofRce and where found — 115, Pliosjjhorite — 
Its importance — Its source in soils — Found in rocks, etc. — 115, 
Sandstones — What is found in them — Easily disintegrated. — 116, 
Soils — How named and why — Deep red soils. — 117, Mould — 
How formed — Remarks. — 118, A complete manure — Waste must 
be supplied. — 119, Humus — Its office — Water and carbon the 
bulk of vegetation — Carbon not furnished b}^ the soil. — 120, Car- 
bon furnished by atmosphere. — 121, Importance of heat and 
moisture. — 121, How to benefit sandy soils. 

CHAPTER V. 

THE MONEY VALUE OF FERTILIZERS, ETC. (Page 123-163.) 

124, How prices should be rated. — 125, Exorbitant prices — 
How to lower them. — 126, Effect of high prices. — 127, No return 
for the money. — 128, Farmers think manures must be bulky— 
Not so. — 128-9, Poorness of some fertilizers — Insincerity of 
manufacturers — Money made from sale of water. — 130, Dishon- 
esty and ignorance of manufacturers — Their lamentations. — 131, 
Tlie good old times — Effects of their frauds — 132, Our duty. — 
133, Poor state of agriculture — Fertilizers in England — In United 
States. — 134, Report of an English manufacturer. — 135, State of 
manufacturers in United States. — 135-6, Mode of estimating 
value in England and Germany — Not applicable to United States. 
— 137, Basis of value. — 138, Analysis of cattle bones, and amount 
of phosphoric acid. — 139, Two sources of phosphoric acid — 1st 
source — 2d source — Its extent. — 140, Report of Dr. Pratt on 



CONTENTS. 9 

mineral phosphates of South Carolina. — 143-3, Anal^'sis of — 
Prices — Profits when merely ground — Of no value m this state. 
— 144-5, Soluble phosphoric acid — IIow produced — Too little sul- 
phuric acid used. — 146, Amount required — Amount for 100 lbs. 
ox bones — The compounds produced. — 148, Cost of materials for 
a ton, and the value. — 149, Profits to manufacturers — Kind sold. 
— 150-1, Cost and value if made of mineral phosphate — Profits 
when sold at $50 per ton — Kind sold. — 152-3, A bogus super- 
phosphate — Insoluble phosphoric acid no value to farmer. — 154, 
Soluble bone phosphate fraud. — 154, Ammonia and Nitrogen — 
Actual and potential ammonia — x\.ctual of most value — Manufac- 
turers make no distinction in giving analyses. — 15G, Value of 
each. — 157, Crude sulphate of ammonia — Nitrogen as pot. amm. 
and how changed to actual. — 158, Cost of nitrogen in bones. — 
159-CO, Value of potash with tables — Deceptions of manufactu- 
rers. — IGl, Catechism for manufacturers. 

CHAPTER VI. 

NATURE AND VALUE OF NATURAL MANURES, COMPOSTING, ETC. 

(Page 103-192.) 

163, Natural manures. — 164, These not sufficient. — 155, Stable 
Manures — Their composition and value. — 107, Analysis of excre- 
ment and value — City Stable Manure — Its value — Frauds and 
profits of dealers. — 169, Rotted and dried stable manure — Use of 
rotting. — 170, Analysis of liquid excrement and value. — 171, 
Total value and remarks. — 172, Swamp Muck — Its composition, 
etc. — 173, Effects of application. — 174, Composting of muck — 
mud — dried earth. — 175, Leaves of Trees — Their value — Analysis 
of, etc.' — 175, Wood and Goal Ashes. — 176, Analysis of — Phos. 
acid and potash in ashes — Effect of coal a'ld peat ashes. — 177. 
Soot — Its value — Analysis of — 177, Marl — Its composition, kinds 
and value. — 179, Oreen Manuring — Its value, and better than 
wdiat — Long root plants. — 180, How and when to green manure 
— Benefits limited — Rest does not restore land. — 181, Liquid Ma- 
nures — Their value, etc — 181, Composting — What is necessary — 
Incorrect method. — 183-4-5, Proper method described. — 186. 
Substances in heap — Chemical changes effected.— 189, Ground 
Ijoncs — Time required. — 190, Mistakes made. 



10 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

GENERAL REMARKS — ANALYSES OP COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS, 
WITH COMMENTS AND CRITICISMS — METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 

(Page 192-260.) 

192, What this chapter will show — Cure for frauds. — 193, 
What manufacturers may object to — Our reply. — 194, Farm pro- 
duce inspected — The golden rule. — 195, Analyses of Watson & 
Clark's Superphosphate — Its money value. — 196, Remarks 
on. — 197, Analyses of Rhodes' Superphosphate — Its money 
value. — 198, Remarks on. — 199, Analyses of Berger & Butz's 
Excelsior Superphosphate of Lime — Its money value. — 200, 
Remarks on. — 201, Analyses op "Magnum Bonum Soluble 
Phosphate," Dugdale & Girvin, sole proprietors, Baltimore, 
Md. — Its money value. — 202-3, Remarks on — Their garbled an- 
alysis. — 204, Their bombast. — 205, Evasion of law of Maryland, 
— 206, Analyses of AVhann's Raw Bone Superphosphate 
— Its money value. — 207, Remarks — Extracts from circular. — 
208-9, False statements. — 210, Cheated in our purchase. — 211, 
Analyses op Soluble Pacific Guano — Its money value. — 212,, 
Remarks — Light in weight — Heavy in Avater, etc. — 213-14, Ex- 
tracts from circular. — 215, Bogus chemists and garbled analysis. 
— 216, Brag — Great cry and little wool. — 217, Analyses op 
Baugh & Sons' Raw Bone Superphosphate — Its money value. 
— 218-19, Remarks on — Extracts from circular. — 220, Garbled 
analysis. — 221, Analyses of Frank Coe's Superphosphate 
OF Lime — Its money value — Remarks— Analysis of in 1854 and 
1865 — Deterioration since then. — 223, Analyses of Moro Phil- 
lips' "Phuine" — Its money value. — 224, Analyses of Moro 
Phillips' Genuine Improved Superphosphate of Lime — Its 
money value. — 225, R,emarks on the Superphosphate and Phuine 
— Extracts from circular. — 227, A great blow and little show — 
Phuine the greatest swindle. — 228, Excellenza Ammoniated 
Soluble Phosphate — Analysis of — Its money value. — 229-30, 
Remarks. — 231, Analyses of Bower's Complete Manure — 
Its money value. — 232, Short weight.^ — 233-34, Extracts from 
circular. — 235, The mountain in labor. — 236, C'ommendatory let- 
ters. — 238, The manure a fraud. — 239, Analyses op Patapsco 
Guano Company's Ammoniated Soluble Phosphate — Its 
money value. — 240, Remarks on — Garbled analysis. — 241, Ex- 
tracts from circular. — 242, Analyses of Needles' Improved 
Superphosphate of Lime — Its money value. — 243, A fraud in 
weight and quality. — 244, Manufacturer should be prosecuted. — 
245, Analyses of the Bromophyte Fertilizer — lis money 
value. — 246, Remarks and extracts. — 248, etc.. Humorous certi- 
ficates. — 252, Stealing thunder. — 252, Methods op Analysis— 
For total nitrogen — For actual ammonia and potash — For 
phos. acid. — 254, Concluding Remarks. — 255, EflFect of certifi- 
cates. — 256, No complaints published. — 257, Mistakes of farmers 
in giving certificates. — 258, As soon give certificate to a thief — 
Necessity for inspection. — 259, Inspection in Germany and its 
effects iu securing the manufacture of good manures. 



CHAPTER I. 



IMPORTANT INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. 



Within tlie past few years, several valuable 
additions have been made to the agricultural 
literature of our country, by some of the most 
practical, scientific men of the times, and we 
suppose that the publication of another book on 
the subject of farming, and its interests, may at 
this time, be considered unnecessary. 

But when we have stated the reasons that 
lead us to issue this publication, and the im- 
portant interests we intend to discuss, we think 
the public at large, and especially our progressive 
farmers, who desire to elevate their profession 
and raise the largest crops with the least possible 
outlay, without impairing the value of their 
lands, will agree with us, that the imforma- 
tion contained in this book has long been needed, 
and that its publication is only the natural 

working of the law of demand and supply. 
2 11 



12 AMERICAN MxVNURES. 

The bulk of tlie agricultural literature of the 
clay has two vital defects, calculated to defeat 
the end for which it is intended. The direct 
cause of this failure may be traced to the 
Avriters themselves, who may be classified as 
follows : 

First. The purely professional, scientific man, 
who, unfortunately, cannot divest his writini2:s 
of the symbols and technical characters and 
terms of science ; as he has a reputation to sustain 
or acquire among the savans of the w^orld, and 
the scientific men of the country. Their w^orks 
may be ever so progressive, and show great 
originality and merit, with an amount of labor 
and patient research deserving of the highest 
commendation. Still they signally fail in the 
object intended — that of giving plain, practical 
information to our farmers — as the most of 
them, on account of their technical character, 
present as much difficulty to the un instructed 
mind of the general farmer as if tliey were 
written in Greek characters. 

It is not our purpose to condemn works of this 
class ; they are needed as text books in oui 
educational institutions, and as books of reference 
for the scient^ific portion of the community. And 
as standard works in science, they could not 
be well given in any other form ; and the farmer, 
had he the leisure, and the inclination, to give 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

them a thorough study, would be amply repaid. 
But we must accept the fact, that the majority 
of our farmers are not educated chemists, and 
that in connection with the labors of tlie farm, 
they have not the time ; and it cannot be ex- 
pected that they would have the inclination to 
prosecute a study that requires so much patient 
research as the science of chemistry. To be- 
come acquainted with those intricate processes 
which are at all times taking place in the plant, — 
the germination of the seed, the causes that lead 
to the formation of the complex and changing 
compounds in the different stages of the growth 
of the plant, the formation of the varied colors 
and perfume of the blossoms, the changes that 
take place in the ripening of the fruit, — is a life- 
long study for men who have leisure, toith a 
natural aptitude for the subject. We do not 
question the utility of these studies. A more 
intimate knowledge of vegetable physiology 
will undoubtedly be of incalculable benefit, in 
indicating the causes and cure of disease and 
blight in plants, which often disappoints the 
hopes of our farmers. 

But the majority of those who have to take 
hold of the handles of the plow themselves, 
require more practical information ; and in order 
to render it acceptable, it should be given in 
practical terms, so that when they seek informa- 



14 AMERICAN MANURES. 

tion Oil any subject connected with their busi- 
ness, they shall not be discouraged by a long 
array of (to them) meaningless symbols, or have 
to be continually referring to a chemical dic- 
tionary to know what the writer means. 

We do not intend any one to infer, that we 
ignore, or attempt to bring science into discredit. 
The farmer needs all tbe science he can get, and 
he would find himself greatly benefited by a 
general application of all its discoveries. But 
he needs an interpreter of the truths and 
facts that have been demonstrated by the 
patient research of those who have been favored 
with opportunities, time and means to devote 
to the subject. 

And in this book we shall endeavor to give 
all the practical knowledge, so far developed 
and established as truths and fixed facts {not 
speculations) y having a particular connection 
with agriculture, and this will be rendered in 
such plain language that a child may read and 
understand. 

The second class of writers, whose productions 
are commonly found in the Agricultural Journals 
of the day, fall into the opposite extreme. 

These writers are practical farmers, and write 
with the commendable intention of giving the 
results of their experience to benefit their 
brethren. 



INTRODUCTION. 15 

They generally give a brief description of 
their experiments, and the benefits derived from 
them, as shown in the improved condition and 
fertility of their lands. The information thus 
given is very good as far as it goes, but as these 
experiments are generally made without a clear 
knowledge of the defects intended to be remedied, 
or of the nature of the materials employed, they 
must naturally be risky : they may succeed or 
fail. As experiments so made must naturally 
cause a great waste of time and money, the 
value of practical knowledge is apparent. 

The farmer to work intelligently should know 
what is the best and cheapest means to effect a 
desired end, and this cannot be done until he is 
fully acquainted with the chemical and physical 
defects of his soil, and the nature and properties 
of those materials that he can procure to correct 
them. Ther'e is no operation of the farm that 
cannot be performed so intelligently as the 
burning of limestone to produce quick lime, and 
the subsequent application of this lime to hasten 
the decomposition of dead vegetable substances 
in the soil, and give food to plants. It is not 
our intention to insult the good sense of our 
practical farmers by any labored defence of 
what is termed book farming. The prejudices 
supposed to exist against valuable information 
that can be given on this subject in books are 



IQ AMERICAN MANUKES. 

only myths, the bugbear of those parties who 
make a business of giving information, and 
writing books on subjects of which they are 
entirely ignorant; and the thin veil of whose 
pretensions is so transparent that the farmer 
soon discovers the emptiness that is within, and 
those writers get the contempt and derision 
they so deservedly merit. 

Farming should and can be elevated to a 
science ; but in order to effect this, the farmer 
should realize that he has more to learn than 
the ])uilding of fences, ploughing and cultivating 
the soil, sowing the seed and gathering the 
harvest, w^ith the general care of his live stock. 
That the necessary knowledge for the per- 
formance of these things can be transmitted 
orally, from father to son, without the aid of 
books, we will admit. But if this was all that 
was necessary to be known, farming would be 
degraded to mere labor and manual dexterity, 
not requiring as much skill and intelligence as 
is exhibited by some of the low^er animals in 
providing for their wants. Traditional know- 
ledge is not progressive. It is onl}' when one 
generation preserves the knowledge they have 
acquired in the form of written books, that the 
next generation are enabled to extend that 
knowledge, and improve the arts or sciences to 
which tliev are devoted. If we do not know 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

what has been ah^eady done, how arc we to 
know where to begin to improve ? 

We might spend a lifetime in perfecting 
some invention that had been proved to be a 
faihire a century before. We should all have 
to commence at the beginning, and life is too 
short to be wasted in that manner. The suc- 
cessive steps by which many of the arts and 
manufactures have advanced to their present 
perfection are fully recorded. We can profit by 
the mistakes, as well as the discoveries, of our 
ancestors, and these mistakes need not be again 
repeated. We are enabled to sift what is 
valuable from the worthless, appropriate it to 
our use and improve on it. 

These are a few of the advantages of books 
on industrial pursuits. As far as agriculture is 
concerned, we think the intelligent farmer will 
admit that his business has less advantages in 
this respect than many others, and consequently 
is far behind the other industries of civilization. 

There are many terse sayings and proverbs 
connected with farming, that have probably been 
handed down from father to son for hundreds of 
years. These generally contain a good deal of 
strong, sound common sense. One at this mo- 
ment presents itself to our own mind. " The 
man who makes two blades of grass grow where 
one grew before is a benefactor to his country." 



18 AMERICAN MANURES. 

This saying is very good as far as it goes, but it 
seems to be incomplete, and we will make a 
little addition to it, as follows : " But the man 
who continually gathers from the soil, and 
returns nothing to it until he can gather no 
more, changing a fertile smiling land into a 
sterile wilderness, impoverishes himself, wrongs 
his country, and beggars his children." This 
may seem severe, but it is none the less true. 
How much individual poverty has been caused 
by excessive cropping, and a total neglect or 
an inadequate application of manures? That 
this state of things has in a great measure been 
caused by ignorance w^e will charitably admit, 
but whatever be the cause of the evil, the effect 
is the same. 

In this vital principle of true and successful 
farming, sustaining fertility by sufficient manur- 
ing, we are as a nation shamefully ignorant and 
criminally negligent. In this matter many of 
our farmers seem totally indifferent, either to 
precept or example ; and the work of deteriora- 
tion is still going on, unchecked and unheeded 
in all parts of the country, while the very sub- 
stances that would prevent and avert this 
great national evil are allowed to go to waste 
everywhere. Farmers often permit their stable 
manure to lie for months exposed to the in- 
fluence of the weather, thus losing the most 



INTRODUCTION". 19 

valuable part of it, namely the ammonia, and 
the soluble salts that -are dissolved and washed 
away by the rain. Whereas all such substances 
should be carefully stored under cover, so that a 
certain amount of fermentation may be produced, 
thus preparing them as an active manure when 
needed. All the waste materials of the farm 
should thus be prepared. The day will come 
when this raw material of future crops will be 
considered as worthy of a store-house as the 
crop itself 

An accurate knowledge of the value of these 
waste products, as representing grass and butter, 
corn, beef and bread, and the other necessaries 
of life, will naturally lead to economy in saving 
those materials. It is the paramount object of 
this book, to give the farmer clear, comprehensive 
views of the theory and practice of manuring, 
so that he can, at the least possible expense, 
raise large crops, preserve the standard fertility 
of his lands, and leave an unimpaired inheritance 
to his children. 

In order to do this we shall show the nature, 
properties, and source of the different elements 
that are exhausted by cultivation, and required 
to be renewed as manures. 

The general composition of different crops and 
plants that are cultivated on the farm, also tlip 
nature source, and properties of the various 



20 AMERICAN MANURES. 

soils from which these plants must be pro- 
duced. 

When the farmer is fully informed on these 
subjects, he can realize the commercial value of 
those elements of fertility, that are yearly re- 
moved from his land, in the various forms of the 
produce that is sent to market ; and also, if he 
does not add anything to his soil in the shape of 
manure, and only realizes a bare living for his 
labor, he can see how much poorer he is becoming 
every year. A thorough knoAvledge and ap- 
preciation of these things will at once convince 
the farmer, that it is impossible for him to 
preserve the fertility of his soil unimpaired, even 
by the most economical and judicious saving and 
application of all the waste substances produced 
on his farm ; that the portion of this produce 
which is removed from the farm, in the shape 
of cattle, and grain, and other produce, is a 
constant drain on the valuable elements of 
fertility, that should finally give his land a 
value; and that if he wishes to preserve its 
average productiveness, or improve it, he must 
return an equivalent in some cheaper form. 

To meet this want, concentrated manures and 
superphosphate of lime are prepared, and the 
farmer finds in them the most convenient means 
at his command to supply the wants of his land. 
As the names and prices of these fertilizers are 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

no criterion of their merits or value, this book 
will come directly to his assistance, and of the 
many evils of fraud and deception, he will be 
enabled to choose the least. 

The manufacture of superphosphate of limo 
will be fully reviewed, showing what it now is, 
and what it should be. 

Full analyses, with critical examinations, will 
be given, with a money value, based on the 
amount of the valuable constituents, solubility, 
and mechanical condition of the different man- 
ures. 

These analyses of the different manufactured 
manures were made by Dr. William H. Bruckner. 
Samples were obtained, as follows : Packages 
already put up for sale to the farmer were pur- 
chased from the manufacturers or their agents. 
Each package was opened as soon as it arrived 
at our office, in the presence of witnesses, its 
contents thoroughly mixed, and a sample of about 
five pounds taken from at least fifty places of the 
thoroughly mixed heap, thus guarding against 
varying quality in the mass. Two analyses in 
all cases were made of different portions of this 
five-pound sample ; hence there cannot possibly 
be any error in the result. 

Having guarded ourselves against all possible 
contingencies, there will be no retraction on our 
part of anything stated about manufactured 



22 AMERICAN MANURES. 

manures, however much manufacturers may he 
offended or feel aggrieved. 

We have made no invidious distinctions be- 
tween the different manures, but have endeavored 
to the best of our ability to deal out even-handed 
justice to all alike. We regret very much, 
however, that the limited time at our command 
would not permit us to examine all the manures 
offered in the market. We have selected the 
most prominent ones; and hope the neglected 
manufacturers will accept our want of time as 
an apology, when we inform them that their 
manures will receive our attention at the earliest 
possible moment — sooner, 'perliaps, than they de- 
sire it. 

It is not our intention or desire to do an act of 
injustice to any one, but we are not to he deterred 
from exposing fraud and imposition. 

We know that there are, or should be, some 
conscientious capable men in this business, who 
desire to make a good article, and give the 
farmer a fair return for his money. Their 
manures, as shown by Dr. Bruckner's analyses, 
are the best tests of their comparative honesty and 
capacity : " By their fruits ye shall know them." 

One of the writers of this book has been 
thoroughly acquainted with the manufacture of 
fertilizers and superphosphate of lime for more 
than ten years, and during that time has super- 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

intended two of the largest establishments for 
the manufacture of fertilizers in this country. 
He has also made the important subject of 
manuring an especial study, and he is thoroughly 
acquainted with the whole business as now con- 
ducted, the sources and nature of the materials 
used, the cost to the manufacturers and the 
methods of manufacturing, with its entire cost 
of production ; all of which information so far 
has been preserved as secrets from the general 
public. The work of deception and dissimula- 
tion has been carried on so extensively by some 
of these manufacturers, that w^e need not wonder 
when w^e see them attempting to deceive even 
themselves. 

There has also been a secrecy preserved in 
nearly all their operations, with an affectation 
of science that would rival the pretensions of the 
alchemists of the middle ages. The similarity 
does not stop there ; all the other characteristics 
are preserved — unmitigated ignorance of the 
elements with which they work, or the ends 
they should produce. With unblushing effron- 
tery they make a parade of science, placing 
themselves before the country as public bene- 
factors, while they eat up the substance of 
the land without giving an adequate return, and 
are stumbling-blocks in the path of progress. 
That they have been able to do this with 



24 AMERICAN MANURES. 

impunity, is due to the fact of the secrecy with 
which all their operations are conducted. 

There is a sort of free-masonry preserved 
amonsf them. In securins; a customer, one of 
the standard phrases of the trade is, " We do 
not commend our article by giving another 
manufacturer a bad name." 

No, dear reader. They do not speak ill of 
each other. What other business can boast the 
possession of this virtue in such an eminent 
degree? But withhold your admiration a mo- 
ment, dear reader. " When rogues fall out, 
honest men get their due." These manufacturers 
live in glass houses, and throwing stones might 
endanger their own property. 

This unity, and secrecy, in connection with 
the pressing wants of our farmers, have given 
them facilities for accumulating princely fortunes 
by practices that may be styled anything but 
honest, while at the same time making loud- 
mouthed pretensions of all the liberal virtues. 

This may seem unnecessarily severe ; but were 
it less so, it might fail in awakening a proper 
sense of the impositions that are practised ujjon 
the most deserving part of the community, those 
lolio furnish us hread. 

One of the proofs of the dishonesty of some of 
the manufacturers may be found in their lying 
circulars and pamplilets, which are full of 



INTRODUCTION". 25 

misrepresentations, and some even contain false 
and garbled analyses intended, or at least 
calculated to deceive, by giving combinations 
of elements that are not foinid in their manures, 
or, if found, in much less quantity than re- 
presented. The arts of the charlatan are ex- 
tensively practised to deceive and impose on 
their customers. Many farmers are fully aware 
of the fact that they need something to enable 
them to raise good crops and renew their im- 
poverished lands, and that in purchasing, they 
are entirely at the merc}^ of these compounders 
of manures. And if they pay a dollar for what 
is worth only fifty cents, it is simply because 
they cannot help themselves in getting the full 
value of their uioney. 

The men who water milk, sand sugar, or sell 
shoddy for broad cloth, are termed swindlers, 
but the amount of their sales is comparatively 
small ; and as we have ready means of detecting 
such frauds, the sales of these unprincipled 
dealers become beautifully less. 

Not so, however, with manufacturers of fertil- 
izers ; from the appearance of the article detection 
is difficult. Hence some of the manuflicturers of 
fertilizers count their profits by the hundreds of 
thousands of dollars yearly ; and we shall prove 
that their practices are equally, or more culpable 
than those of the other party. When a manu- 



26 AMERICAN MANURES. 

facturer of fertilizers can realize as profits two 
hundred thousand dollars in a year, from the 
investment of an amount of capital that would 
barely purchase a farm of two hundred acres in 
some parts of the country, all honest men must 
admit that a great wrong is perpetrated, and 
that it cannot be too soon righted. 

One of the objects of this book is to place 
this business fairly before the public ; and, as it 
furnishes the raw material to the farmer, this 
raw material should have no advantage over the 
products of the farm. It should be as closely 
scrutinized as to quality, and its profits reduced 
to a legitimate standard. The fiirmer will be 
enabled, by the information here given, to select 
the manure that will yield him the largest 
return for the mone\^ expended. 

This of course will place the dishonest manu- 
facturer of fertilizers in the same category as the 
dishonest grocer, and he will soon discover from 
his reduced sales, that he must improve his 
article or quit the business. 

The farmer can see at a glance the great 
value of the information here given. The im- 
portation and manufacture of fertilizers have 
become a business of great magnitude. Not 
less than ^ve hundred thousand tons of prepared 
manures, guanos, bone-dust, and superphosphates 
of lime, are annually sold in this country, at a 



INTRODUCTION. 27 

cost of about twenty five millions of dollars to 
the farmer and planter. 

This fact shows that there must be a great 
demand based on a great want of these fertilizers. 
It also speaks well for the enterprise and pro- 
gressive spirit of our farmers, that they are 
willing to invest this enormous amount of money. 
We shall show that this money expended does 
not give a commensurate return, in a propor- 
tional increase of the crops, and that nearly one 
half of it goes into the pockets of the manu- 
facturers as profits. 

But under present circumstances, how is the 
farmer to know, at the time of making his 
purchase of these manures, that he is getting a 
good article, and the large amount he pays is a 
good investment of his money ? As these man- 
ures undergo no official inspection, he must 
necessarily buy them on the strength of their 
general reputation of being good, and the high 
sounding recommendations of the manufacturers 
and agents, with an array of glowing certificates 
from farmers, who probably did not receive a 
tithe of the benefit they should have received 
for the amount of money expended. 

How is the farmer to know that the manure 
manufactured this year, is not greatly inferior to 
Avhat was made the year before ? The writers 
know that the value of manures of the same 

3 



28 AMERICAN MANURES. 

manufacturers varies considerably in different 
seasons. If a good manure is made one year, it 
establishes a reputation that enables the manu- 
facturer to palm off an inferior article the next 
season. The farmer has no means of judging 
the quality of the article by its appearance, and 
has to rely on the honesty of the manufacturer ; 
and this confidence, on his part, is too often 
abused. He finds, too late, that instead of being 
benefited as he expected, that the amount paid for 
the manure has been a direct tax on his scanty 
produce, involving a serious loss of time, labor 
and capital. 

Our agricultural bureau at Washington has 
failed to give this momentous national question 
that attention the subject deserves and requires, 
as any one who reads the agricultural reports 
must admit. An ofiice or bureau of inspection 
for these manures is imperatively demanded. 
Every concentrated manure, fertilizer, or super- 
phosphate of lime should be analyzed by com- 
petent and honest chemists, and their processes 
made known, and the grade of the article fixed ; 
and there should be a law requiring a guaranteed 
analysis to be attached to each bag or barrel of 
the manure, and the manufacturers to be liable 
to prosecution if their manures fall short of the 
guaranteed standard. 

This is a matter of vital importance, not only 



INTRODUCTION. 29 

to the practical agriculturist, but to tlie people 
at large. Every one should feel an interest in 
the productiveness of our soils ; as all are con- 
sumers of its products, therefore all are pecunia- 
rily interested. Moreover, when our lands fail 
in their natural fertility, the loss injures com- 
merce, manufactures, mechanical arts, and para- 
lyzes all new enterprises. 

It is a grave mistake to suppose that farmers 
alone are interested in the practical results of 
tillage. They have no more than a common 
interest in maintaining or improving the natural 
fruitfulness of the earth. 

Hence, we should all unite in endeavoring to 
impart knowledge to our farmers. If an increase 
of knowledge should save only five cents on the 
growing of a bushel of wheat, it w^ould amount 
to nearly thirteen millions of dollars on the 
average wheat crop of this country. Or, if the 
same saving could be effected on each bushel of 
our average corn crop, it would amount to near- 
ly fifty millions of dollars. 

The writers have endeavored to impart what 
knowledge they possess, trusting and believing 
that their efforts will be appreciated by those 
for wdiom they have been exerted— Our Far- 
mers and Planters. 

Feeling confident that we shall have the pat- 
ronage of the farmer, and the good wishes of the 



30 AMERICAN MANURES. 

community at large {dishonest manufacturers' 
excepted), in this new field of labor, we shall leave 
nothing undone in this, and in future editions, to 
render our work attractive, useful and instruc- 
tive. 



CHAPTER II. 

ELEMENTS OF MANURES AND PLANTS. 

Manures are substances added or applied to 
soils^ to supply the wants of the different plants 
intended for the use of man and animals. That 
certain vegetable, animal and mineral substances 
applied to soils will quicken the growth of vege- 
tation and increase the amount of production, 
are facts that have been known from the earliest 
period. But the nature and properties of these 
substances, called manures; the manner in 
which they act; the best modes of applying 
them ; and their relative value and durability, 
are subjects still open to inquiry and discussion. 

Some substances used as manures furnish 
directly the materials that enter into the com- 
position of plants ; while others are applied to 
change the physical character of the soil, and 
effect chemical changes on the insoluble materi- 
als that it may contain, rendering them soluble, 
and in such condition that thev can be assimila- 
ted by plants. 

As every part of man and animals is originally 

31 



32 AMERICAN MANURES. 

derived- from the plants that have served them 
and their predecessors as food, and as no ele- 
ment can produce itself, and nothing is lost or 
destroyed ; it is evident that the excrements of 
animals when living, together with their bodies 
after death, will contain everything that is 
necessary for the reproduction of plants. 

But as these bodies are of a complex nature, 
and in the act of putrefaction and decay resolve 
themselves into simpler forms, a valuable part 
passing away in different gases; and as the 
greater part of the produce of the land is con- 
sumed in cities and towns, where the excrements 
are in a great measure allowed to go to waste, 
it is impossible to return the same elements in 
their changed form to the soil to produce other 
crops. Consequently, we have to look to other 
sources for the materials to make good this loss 
and preserve the fertility of the land. 

There is no deficiency of the substances re- 
quired for the growth of plants. A kind Provi- 
dence has economically stored them for our use 
in a variety of forms. Hence the importance of 
a knowledge of the elements of manures ; also 
where to procure them, and how to prepare and 
apply them. 

THE ELEMENTS. 

To assist the farmer in obtaininsc a knowled^re 
of the elements entering into the composition of 



THE ELEMENTS. 33 

cultivated plants, we have arranged them as 

follows : 

I. Gaseous Elements. — Oxygen, Hydrogen, 

Nitrogen, Chlorine. 

II. Elements combining with Oxygen to form 
Acids. — Silicon, Carbon, Phosphorus, Sulphur. 

III. Elements combining with Oxygen to 
form Bases. — Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Potas- 
sium, Sodium. 

The combinations of Potassium and Sodium 
are termed alkalies. 

The elements unite in definite proportions, 
called equivalents, representing the smallest 
quantity in which they enter into combination, 
one with the other. The equivalents are, for 



Oxygen 8 

Hydrogen 1 

Nitrogen 14 

Chlorine 35.5 

Silicon 14 

Carbon 6 



Phosphorus 31 

Sulphur 16 

Calcium 20 

Magnesium 12.2 

Iron 28 

Potassium 39 

Sodium 23 

To render the above intelligible, we give a few 
examples, viz: 8 pounds or parts of oxygen 
unite with 1 pound or part of hydrogen, to form 
9 pounds or parts of water. Three parts of 
hydrogen unite with 14 parts of nitrogen, to 
form 17 parts of ammonia; and 16 parts of sul- 
phur unite with 24 parts of oxygen, to form 40 
parts of anhydrous sulphuric acid. 



34 AMERICAN MANURES. 

The laws that govern these combinations are 
arbitrary ; any excess of an element does not 
affect the composition of the resulting com- 
pound. 

An Element contains but one kind of matter, 
as Oxygen, Sulphur, Calcium. 

A Compound is the union of two or more ele- 
ments ; as Water, Sulphuric Acid, Oxide of Cal- 
cium. 

An Oxide is a combination of an element with 
oxygen ; as calcium united with oxygen is called 
the oxide of calcium, or quick lime ; or sulphur 
united with oxygen to produce sulphuric acid, 
is called an oxide of sulphur. The union of 
oxygen with different elements produces both 
acids and bases. 

A Salt is the union of an acid with a base, the 
active properties of the acid being neutralized, 
and the compound having properties different 
from either; as lime or the oxide of calcium 
unites with sulphuric acid to form the sulphate 
of lime, or land plaster. A salt may also be pro- 
duced by the union of an element w^ith an ele- 
ment; as chlorine uniting with sodium to form 
common salt. The force that produces the com- 
binations of dissimilar bodies is termed Chemical 
Affinity. 

Chemical Affinity may be defined as an 
attraction exerted at insensible distances between 



GASEOUS ELEMENTS. 35 

particles of matter of different kinds, the result 
of which is the formation of new particles 
possessed of qualities different from those of their 
components; as quicklime combines with sul- 
phuric acid, to form gypsum or land plaster. 

This definition will show the difference be- 
tween chemical attraction or affinity, and the 
forces of gravitation and cohesion. Gravitation 
is exerted at all distances between masses of 
matter without regard to their nature, and differs 
entirely from affinity. 

Cohesion differs less widely from affinity, since 
its attraction is exerted only at minute distances. 
This force, however, is exerted more frequently, 
and with greater energy between similar particles 
of matter, than between particles of different 
kinds ; and the operation of these forces is not 
attended with any material alteration in the 
properties of matter. 

We shall now proceed to the consideration of 
the different elements found in plants, in the 
order of their division. 

GASEOUS ELEMENTS. 

Oxygen was discovered by Priestly, in 1774. 
It is permanent, colorless, tasteless, and odorless, 
and is a supporter of combustion; any combustible 
substance burns in oxygen with increased bril- 



36 AMERICAN MANURES. 

liancy and rapidity. Some substances unite 
with oxygen at the common temperature, as is 
the case of the rusting of iron when moisture is 
present. Oxygen unites with all the elements 
entering into the composition of plants, in one 
or several proportions, as in the following sub- 
stances, viz : One equivalent of calcium unites 
with one equivalent of oxygen to form oxide 
of calcium, commonly called quicklime ; one 
equivalent of sulphur unites with three equiva- 
lents of oxygen to form anhydrous sulphuric acid. 
One equivalent of phosphorus unites with ^yo 
equivalents of oxygen to form anhydrous plios- 
phoric acid. 

Mechanically mixed with nitrogen, oxygen 
forms about 21 per cent, by volume of the 
atmosphere, and is heavier than common air in 
the proportion of 11 to 10. Much more than one 
half of the weight of plants and animals is 
oxygen. How wonderful, that a gas should by 
powerful affinities be bound *up in such vast 
stores in rocks and the solid mountains of the 
earth, as well as in the ocean, pervading all 
created matter, and being itself the essence of 
life; and that without it, plants and animals 
would speedily die. 

Oxygen serves both as material for the 
production of matter in combining with other 
substances, as with carbon, forming carbonic 



HYDROGEN. 37 

acid ; and also as a direct agent of the chemical 
vital processes in the plant. 

The sources for the supply of oxygen to the 
plant, are carbonic acid, water, and nitric acid. 
These compounds offer to plants much more 
oxygen than they require, in consequence of 
which the most of the oxygen is again restored 
to the atmosphere; the plant retaining the carbon, 
a portion of the hydrogen, and the nitrogen of 
the nitric acid. 

The amount of oxygen exhaled from plants is 
very considerable ; it is, arid must be equivalent 
to the quantity required for the purpose of 
respiration, combustion, and decay. If it were 
not so, the amount of this vital air in the 
atmosphere would either be increasing or dimin- 
ishing, either cause unfitting it for the purpose 
of respiration. 

If the law which governs the liberation of this 
substance were but slightly changed, an extinc- 
tion of all plants and animals would follow. 
Increase or diminish in any sensible degree the 
vital air, or oxygen, and all vitality must shortly 
cease. 

HYDEOGEN. 

Hydrogen was discovered by Cavendish, in 
1776. It is one of the most diffused bodies, and is 
transparent, odorless, tasteless, and inflammable. 



38 AMEBIC AN MANURES. 

It does not exist in nature, in the free or un- 
combined state, nor does it exist so abundantly 
as oxygen. It forms a part of all animals and 
plants, and one-ninth of the weight of water. 
At the same temperature, and under like pressure, 
it is sixteen times lighter than oxygen, and nearly 
fourteen and a half times lighter than common air. 

This gas will not support a flame or combus- 
tion. But although hydrogen does not exist in 
nature in the free state, it is being continually 
formed by the decomposition of water, caused by 
the putrefaction of organic bodies ; this liberated 
hydrogen uniting with nitrogen, carbon or sul- 
phur, forming ammonia, carburetted and sul- 
phuretted hydrogen. It is generally found in 
plants, in excess of the amount required to form 
water, showing that water is decomposed in the 
plant, and that the oxygen is expelled; the 
hydrogen being possibly retained as an attractive 
element, should there be a scarcity of moisture, 
to again combine with more oxygen and form 
water. 

This element is assimilated by j)l^nts in 
ammonia and water ; these sources are sufficient 
to furnish hydrogen. 

CARBUKETTED HYDROGEN. 

Carburetted Hydrogen is found in large 
quantities during the decay of vegetable jnatter 



SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN 39 

in moist places or in stagnant pools, and may 
often be seen rising in bubbles in marshy places. 
In warm weather, and when vegetation com- 
mences to decay in the Ml of the year, the 
amount formed is largely increased. It is called 
marsh gas, and its presence is the direct cause 
of the malaria of chills and fevers or the ague. 
It is largely generated in the distillation of soft 
or bituminous coal, and when mixed with atmos- 
pheric air, is the much dreaded fire daini:^, the 
explosion of which is so fatal to miners. 

This gas is also given off with carbonic acid 
during the fermentation of compost heaps, or 
any large deposits of vegetable matter. It is 
present in all soils containing much decaying 
vegetable matter, and is a source of carbon and 
hydrogen to the growing plant ; but to effect this 
a decomposition of its elements must be effected. 

When it is present in large quantities, it is 
probable that it is just as poisonous to vegetable 
as it is to animal life, and shows insufficient 
oxidation of the carbon. 

SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 

Sulphuretted Hydrogen is a gaseous com- 
pound of sulphur and hydrogen, and may be 
readily detected by the similiarity of its odor to 
rotten eggs. Water absorbs about three times 



40 AMEEICAN MANURES. 

its volume of this gas, and some sulphur springs 
contain large quantities of it. It is colorless, 
inflammable, and when breathed, highly poison- 
ous. Being considerably heavier than common 
air, it may be poured into cavities and holes, and 
has been successfully used in killing vermin and 
rats. The gas is produced in marshy stagnant 
places, and in fish ponds, where vegetable matter 
is undergoing decay in the presence of the 
sulphates of the metals in solution, as the 
sulphate of iron, gypsum or land plaster ; and in 
old pasture lands it may be frequently detected, 
even by the sense of smell, around the roots of 
the sod. As in the egg, so in other decaying 
animal matter, especially when the air is in a 
manlier excluded, this gas is formed. The 
presence of this gas is detrimental to vegetable 
life; where it exists in considerable quantity it 
prevents the free excess of oxygen, without 
which plants as well as animals cannot live. 
Plants have not the power of rejecting poisonous 
substances any more than animals. The presence 
of these gases in the soil is a proof that it is un- 
fitted for the proper and luxuriant growth of 
plants, and that an imperfect oxidation of the 
soil exists, that cannot too soon be remedied by 
cultivation and the addition of active manurial 
substances. 



NITROGEN. 41 

NITROGEN. 

Nitrogen is a permanent gas. It has neither 
taste, color nor smell, and is destitute of active 
properties. It is incombustible, and will not 
support combustion or respiration. Its most im- 
portant function is to dilute the oxygen of the 
atmosphere, which contains 77 per cent, by 
weight, or 79 per cent, by volume of nitrogen. 

Nitrogen does not enter into direct combina- 
tion with any elements, excepting oxygen, with 
which it may be made to unite hy subjecting the 
mixture of the gases to a succession of powerful 
electric shocks. The union of nitrogen with 
oxygen in proper proportions produces nitric 
acid, consisting of one equivalent or 14 parts 
of the former, with 5 equivalents or 40 parts of 
the latter. 

Nitric acid in small quantity is produced in 
the atmosphere during thunderstorms by the 
same agency, and is absorbed by rains, thus 
furnishing a limited supply of this element to 
plants. 

As before stated, 14 parts of nitrogen uniting 
with 3 parts of hydrogen, form ammonia ^ this 
compound, with nitric acid, being the most im- 
portant source of nitrogen for plants. 

Nitrogen is so essential to the growth of 
plants, that no matter if every other element 



42 AMERICAN MANURES. 

was present in excess, without it they could 
never come to mataritj. 

Since nitrogen is so plentifully furnished in 
the atmosphere, a superficial observer would 
suppose that plants would never suffer from a 
lack of this substance. The closest investiga- 
tions have failed to show that they can assimilate 
nitrogen in its pure state from the atmosphere ; 
on the contrary, some plants discharge the 
nitrogen that is absorbed by the roots. On the 
other hand it has been directly proved, by a 
large amount of evidence, that it enters into 
their roots, either as ammonia or nitric acid. 

There are various opinions as to the relative 
value of ammonia and nitric acid, in furnishing 
nitrogen to plants; but as the application of 
either substance is followed by direct beneficial 
results, it may be inferred that they are nearly 
equally valuable in proportion to the amount of 
nitrogen contained in each, although it is very 
j)robable that ammonia is more directly available. 

Many persons suppose that the atmosj^here 
furnishes a sufficient amount of this substance 
for the wants of vegetation, and that it is 
brought down by rains and dews into the soil. 
That ammonia is continually being formed from 
decaying animal and vegetable matter, and that 
it escapes into the atmosphere, we will admit; 
and we will now examine how fiir this supjoljy 



NITROGEN. 43 

will go to supply the wants of plants, based on 
the experiments of distinguished chemists. 

In 1855 and 1856, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, 
at Eothamstead, England, collected on a large rain 
gauge presenting a surface of tooo of an acre, 
the entire rain-fall (with dews, etc., included), for 
those years. Prof. Way, at that time chemist 
to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 
analyzed the waters, and found that the total 
amount of ammonia contained in them was 
equal to Tibs in 1855, and QJtbs in 1856, for an 
acre of surface. These amounts W'cre yielded 
by 663,000 and 616,000 gallons of rain w^ater 
respectively. In the waters collected at Inster- 
burg, during the year ending March, 1865, 
Pincus and Roellig obtained 6.38 lbs of ammonia 
per acre. Bretschneider found in the waters 
collected at Ida Marienhuette, from April, 1865, 
to April, 1866, 12ft)s for an acre of surface. 

One hundred pounds of wheat, wdth the straw, 
require two and a half per cent, of nitrogen, 
equal to more than three per cent, of ammonia. 
The reader can see at a glance, how inadequate 
this amount of ammonia is to supply an ordinary 
crop with this element; 25 bushels of wheat, 
with the straw, will require 451bs of ammonia; 
so that if the plant could assimilate all the 
ammonia of the rain water, 401bs additional 
would have to be added or applied to an 



44 AMERICAN MANURES. 

acre. These facts need no further comment, 
and conclusively prove the necessity of adding 
ammonia or nitrogen, in some form, to the grow- 
ing plant, to supply this element. 

CHLORINE. 

Chlorine is a yellowish green liquefiahle gas, 
of a pungent, suffocating odor. It is incom- 
bustible, but supports the combustion of a few 
bodies. Chlorine is incapable of supporting 
respiration, causing instantaneous deatli when 
inhaled pure; when diluted with atmospheric 
air, and breathed in small quantities, it excites 
violent coughing, accompanied by an o^Dpressive 
choking sensation, sometimes followed by spitting 
of blood. 

Chlorine is abundantly found in nature in 
combination with sodium, as rock salt ; it is also 
found in sea-water and marine plants. 

The reader will see, by referring to the tables 
showing the Composition of Plants, that a very 
small amount of this element is required ; and as 
it is always applied to the soil in alkaline 
chlorides, we shall review this element more 
fully under the head of Sodium. 

The fores^oins; brief review of the 2:ases that 

CO o 

enter into the composition of plants, and the 
comjDounds they form with other elements, 
should be well considered and understood by the 



SILICON. 45 

reader. It is not our intention to write a 
work on elementary chemistrj; we give only 
such general chemical facts as are required to be 
known by the farmer, to render the subsequent 
part of this book fully intelligible. 

ELEMENTS COMBINING WITH OXYGEN 
TO FORM ACIDS. 

Silicon is never found as such in nature. It 
was discovered by Humphry Davy, in 1813. It 
presents the appearance of a brown powder, or 
of scaly crystals resembling graphite. Silicon 
when combined with oxygen in the proportion 
of 53.34 of the latter, to 46.66 of the former, 
forms an acid kuown as Silicic Acid, or simply 
Silica. This acid occurs in nature both free and 
combined : free, as quartz, flint and pure white 
sand ; combined, as felspar, serpentine, etc. The 
salts of silica are termed silicates, as silicates 
of potash, lime and magnesia. These silicates 
chemically combined with water are termed 
hydrated silicates, which are present in all or 
nearly all soils, and render a most valuable 
service to vegetation, by storing up soluble plant- 
food, and dealing it out when required. 

Silica is either crystallized or amorphous. 
When crystallized, it forms six-sided, trans- 
parent, colorless prisms, known as rock crystal: 



46 AMERICAN MANURES. 

when amorphous, it is white, tasteless, and gritty, 
as in flint, sand, etc. It is insoluble in water, 
and in acids, hydrofluoric excepted. It enters 
largely into the composition of glass, porcelain, 
etc.; and we can safely say that the former 
contains over half its weight of this acid. 

Silica, when chemically united with water, 
forms a transparent jelly, known as hydrated or 
soluble silica. This is soluble- in water to a 
certain extent, and in acids, even in the feeble 
carbonic. From it, and from alkaline silicates, 
plants obtain their silica. This silica is prepared 
for the use of the plant by natural agencies, 
somewhat in the following manner. Suppose 
w^e allow carbonic acid and water to act on a 
combination of lime, potash, and silica, what 
takes place ? The lime and potash combine 
with the carbonic acid to form carbonates of 
these substances, and the silica combining with 
water becomes plant-food. A long time, how- 
ever, is required to effect this change, unless the 
alkaline silicate is in a very minute state of 
division. 

The part taken by silica in natural operations is 
chiefly a mechanical one, for which its abundance 
and stability under ordinary circumstances pe- 
culiarly fits it ; for it is found to constitute the 
great bulk of the soil, and serves as a support 
for the plant, and a reservoir for its food. 



SILICA. 47 

Soluble silica is indispensable to the growth 
of grasses and the straw of cereals, and forms 
the shining outer sheath of these plants. It is 
very abundant in the hard external coating of 
the Dutch rush used for polishing. 

Silica as existing in plants is united with 
potash and soda, and may be said to be insoluble 
in water ; but by the fermentation and decay of 
these plants carbonic acid is liberated, which 
uniting Avith the potash and soda forms car- 
bonates of these substances, and the silica is 
separated as hydrated or soluble silica, to supply 
the wants of growing plants. 

In the production of wheat and other cereals, 
the presence of this element, in a soluble state, is 
of the first importance in building up the straw 
or stalk. 

If the reader refers to the tables showing the 
composition of the straw of the different grain 
crops, he will see what a large amount of this 
substance is required. 

As tlie amount of soluble silica in the most 
of soils is comparatively small, every farmer 
who wishes to raise wheat or other grain, will 
see the importance of returning every particle 
of straw to his land to furnish this substance. 

Another source of soluble silica at the com- 
mand of the farmer are the weeds and reeds 
that grow in swampy places or running water, 



48 AMERICAN MANURES. 

which contain a considerable amount of this 
substance. It also enters largely into the com- 
position of the leaves of some trees, as the beech 
and red pine. The presence of decaying veget- 
able matter will also separate silica from its 
insoluble compounds, as before stated. This is 
one of the ixreat benefits derived from ijfreen 
manuring. The lack of soluble silica vitally 
affects the growth of nearly all cultivated plants ; 
but, as it can be economically manufactured and 
applied to the soil as silicate of soda, and also 
added in the waste products of previous crops, 
the farmer has full supplies at command. 

CARBON. 

Carbon was discovered by Lavoisier in 17S0. 
It enters largely into the composition of plants. 
It forms the bulk of mineral coal, charcoal, lamp- 
black, black-lead, and is exhibited in its purest 
known state in tlie diamond. All these sub- 
stances have the common property of uniting 
with oxygen in a state of combustion, and then 
producing carbonic acid gas. 

Carbonic Acid is composed of one equivalent 
of carbon combined w-itli tAVO equivalents of 
oxygen. Its salts are termed carbonates. That 
plants a^-similate this gas, and that it is the 
most important source of carbon necessary to 



CARBON". 49 

their growth, will be shown under the head of 
Humus in Soils. Carbon forms from forty to 
tifty per cent, by weight of the different 
cultivated plants, so that in the economy of 
their growth, it may be considered one of the 
most important elements of their composition. 
This is one of the elements the farmer need not 
trouble himself in applying to his soil as a manure, 
because the atmosphere furnishes an abundant 
supply free of cost. The flict of the assimila- 
tion of carbon by plants from the atmosphere 
has been placed beyond doubt, by the investiga- 
tions of eminent scientific men, from the time 
of Priestley, who made this discovery in 1771, up 
to the present time. 

The fjirmer must not infer from the fact that 
the atmosphere furnishes to the plant all the 
carbon which it requires, that the presence of a 
mould of humus, or partially oxidized organic 
matter, is not necessary in a soil. Its presence 
produces beneficial physical effects, that tend 
directly to their healthy growth. Its capacity 
for absorbing fertilizing gases and giving them 
out as they are needed by plants, also its power 
of attracting heat and retaining moisture, are 
advantages obtained by the presence of a large 
amount of mould in the soil, which are not 
possessed by soils composed simply of sand, no 
matter how fine the state of division may be, or 



50 AMERICAN MANURES. 

the amount of fertilizing elements they may 
contain 

PHOSPHORUS. 

Phosphorus as commonly met with is yellow 
and transparent, resembling wax in consistency. 
Having a powerful affinity for oxygen, it never 
occurs free in nature. It is spontaneously in- 
flammable, and for this reason is preserved under 
water. Phosphorus was originally prepared from 
urine by a tedious and disagreeable process ; but 
Gahn, a Swedish chemist, having discovered that 
it enters largely into the composition of bones, it 
is now prepared from this class of bodies. When 
burnt in air or oxygen, it is converted into snow- 
lilre flocks, which are called anhi/drous phos- 
phoric acid. 

Phosphoric Acid contains, in 100 parts, phos- 
phorus 43.66, oxygen 56.34. This acid has a 
great affinity for water, and by exposure to a 
moist atmosphere is converted into liydrated 
phosphoric acid. There are several hydrates of 
this acid ; but only one of these enters into the 
composition of manures, viz : tri-basic phosphoric 
acid. A tri-basic acid is one that requires three 
equivalents of the saiiie or of different bases to 
fonn a salt ; for example : 

Bone-Phosphate of Lime, known as Basic 
Phosphate of Lime, is composed of one equivalent 



PHOSPHORUS. 51 

of phosphoric acid and three equivalents of lime, 
and contains, in 100 parts, phosphoric acid 45.81, 
lime 51.19. This is the state in which this salt 
is naturally found in bones, coprolites, phos- 
phorite, apatite, etc. 

Neutral Phosphate of Lime contains two 
equivalents of lime, one of water, and one of 
phosphoric acid ; in 100 parts, phosphoric acid 
52.20, lime 41.18, water 6.62. 

Superphosphate of Lime, termed also acid 
and bi-phosphate of lime, contains one equiva- 
lent of phosphoric acid, one equivalent of lime, 
and two equivalents of water ; containing, in 100 
parts, phosphoric acid 60.69, lime 23.93, water 
15.38. If we remove from bone-phosphate of 
lime the tliree equivalents of its base, and re- 
place them with water, we obtain tri-basic phos- 
phoric acid, usually in the form of a colorless, 
syrupy liquid, very acid to the taste. Again, 
if we remove from bone-phosphate of lime but 
two equivalents of lime, and replace them with 
water, we obtain super pliospliate of lime. This 
change, in either case, can be effected by sul- 
phuric acid. This acid, having a greater affinity 
for the lime than phosphoric acid has, unites 
with the lime, forming gypsum or land plaster. 
Superphosphate of lime forms white scales, 
which are very soluble in water, imjoarling to it 
an acid taste. 



52 AMERICAN MANURES. 

On the subject of the action of superphosphate 
of lime in soils, and its relative value compared 
with insoluble phosphoric acid, as contained in 
bone-dust, coproUtes or mineral guano, we can- 
not do better than give an extract from Ronna's 
exhaustive report on that subject, as follows : 

" What takes place, in fact, when super- 
phosphates are presented to the soil ? Coming 
into contact with the alkaHes, or the earthy 
alkaline bases, the phosphoric acid in excess 
combines with them, and phosphate of lime is 
precipitated in a gelatinous condition, this being 
the one in which a sparingly soluble substance 
enters more freely into solution. Gelatinous 
phosphate of lime dissolves readily even in the 
feeble carbonic acid. When it presents itself, 
however, in the form of coprolites, solution is 
effected with the greatest difficulty. From this 
it may be seen, how little profitable it is, to use 
powdered coprolites, otherwise than upon new 
clearings and first ploughings, or upon soils in 
which probably free acids can act upon them, so 
that they may then be able to yield to vegeta- 
tion by degrees a small quantity of phosphoric 
acid. Such coprolytic powder does not satisfy 
the demands of an advanced and progressive 
agriculture, that is, immediate results, but only 
effects, for wdiich one is compelled to wait ten, 
yea, twenty years. 



ronna's report. 53 

" Woeliler and Yoelcker have made some very 
interesting experiments on the solubility of phos- 
phates in their dry, moist, and gehitinous state, 
on the solubility of bone-meal, of boiled bone, 
of glue refuse, of guano, of coprolites, of plios- 
phorite, and of apatite, all of which prove the 
beneficial effect which the mechanical condition 
of phosphates exercises upon their solubility. 
Thus precipitated phosphate of lime, slightly 
moistened and allowed to remain in contact 
with water for a week, lost 1.10 gramme, while 
Suffolk coprolites lost but 0.09 gramme, and 
Cambridge coprolites, 0.08 gramme. The amount 
of water used in either case was 100 litres. In 
a solution of ammoniacal salts, in the proportion 
of 1 to 100, precipitated phosphate of lime lost 
4.80 grammes, Suffolk coprolites, 0.24 gramme, 
and Cambridge coprolites, 0.33 gramme. A 
solution containing 1 per cent, of carbonate of 
ammonia, dissolved of precipitated phosphate of 
lime 2.48 grammes, of coprolites 0.36 gramme. 
Precipitated phosphate of lime afforded to a 
solution, containing 1 per cent, of sea-salt, 0.97 
gramme; coprolites 0.19 gramme. 

" But more than all the experiments in the 
laboratory, those of the practical agriculturist 
have confirmed the necessity of phosphates 
rendered soluble, and these are the experiments 
of twenty years, and of a whole country — which 



54 AMERICAN MANURES. 

country indisputably occupies the front rank in 
regard to agricultural productions. 

" As superphosphate of lime may be viewed as 
phosphate of lime dissolved in phosphoric acid, 
the former (phosphate of lime), as soon as the 
free acid is neutralized, is rendered insoluble or 
difficultly soluble in water, and is precipitated. 
Therefore, one of the objections made, viz., that, 
when superphosphate of lime is applied to cer- 
tain soils, the soluble phosphate is lost by rain, 
is unfounded. From very careful experiments 
of Dr. Yoelcker on the transformation of soluble 
phosphates in contact with five different soils, 
which were first carefully analyzed, it is evident, 
that marly or chalky soils absorb the soluble 
phosphate more readily, that is, render it more 
quickly insoluble, than clayey or sandy soils. 
In the former soils, it appears that lime is the 
only operating force in this transformation. 
However quick absorption may take place, it is 
never instantaneous ; for in soils containing an 
excess of lime, from 24 to 48 hours are required. 

'^ As no acid combination can enter the plant 
without damaging it, and as superphosplmtes 
have never proven themselves injurious to plants, 
it follows herefrom, that phosphoric acid, which 
cannot exist in soils in a free state, is there 
neutralized, and tliat, in consequence, the solu- 
ble phosphate is converted into insoluble or 



ACTION OF SUPERPHOSPHATES. 55 

sparingly soluble pliospliate, regardless of the 
nature of the soil. It is an nnfoimded idea, 
that plants in the first stages of their growth 
are nourished by the soluble phosphate^ and, 
during maturity, strengthened by the insoluble. 
It would therefore be foolish, to say the least, 
to prepare a superphosphate containing both 
soluble and insoluble phosphoric acid. Exper- 
ience has proved to satisfliction, that, of two 
manures containing the same total amount of 
phosphoric acid, the one with the largest amount 
of soluble phosphate, other circumstances being 
equal, is the most effective. 

" It is therefore indispensably necessary, espe- 
cially in manufactories where mineral phos- 
phates are Avorked, that the insoluble phosphate 
be rendered as completely soluble as possible. 
The manufacturer should at all times use every 
effort to increase the amount of soluble phos- 
phoric acid in his superphosphate. 

" If, on coming in contact with the soil, the 
soluble phosphate become insoluble, lolnj, say 
the champions of pulverized coprolites, treat at 
great expense mineral matters with acid, and 
increase their cost, merely for the sake of again 
obtaining in the soil insoluble products ? An- 
swer : It is not the purpose of the acid alone to 
produce soluble phosphate. The mineral first 
of all is disintegrated by the acid, and then 



56 AMERICAN MANURES. 

partially converted into soluble phosphate, etc., 
which, on being neutralized in the soil by lime, 
or by sesquioxide of iron, alumina, etc., is then 
brought into a very fine state of division. As 
the neutralization takes place in the soil itself, 
the phosphate is incorporated with the same in 
the simplest and most intimate manner. How- 
ever fine the bones may be ground by mechan- 
ical operations, their tissue is not destroyed in 
them, and the phosphates within them are in a 
relatively raw condition. As to coprolites, even 
converted into powder ever so fine, they cannot 
have any effect on the soil, unless it contains 
free acids. Precipitated phosphates have not 
only a larger volume than those merely pulver- 
ized, but they are also, as we have proved, more 
freely soluble in water than mineral phosphates. 
Even if their elementary composition be the 
same, the finely divided condition of the precipi- 
tated phosphate presents indisputable advantages. 
The precipitated phosphate is dissolved by the 
most dilute acetic acid, while it has little action on 
the finest bone-meal, and still less on coprolites. 
'' The secret, therefore, of the efficiency of 
superphosphates consists in the fact, that the 
oluble phosphates of the superphosphate are 
converted in the soil itself into an insoluble but 
very finely divided product. If this change took 
place before the dissemination of the fertilizer, the 



SULPHUR. 57 

purpose of the s<ame would be but imperfectly 
accomplished. From these remarks it is plain 
why superphosphates applied in a liquid state 
are often more active than when used in a dry 
state. In fact, the solution of the phosphate is 
more perfectly disseminated, and enters more 
quickly into the most useful state for plant 
nourishing. The dry acid. phosphate, inasmuch 
as it quickly becomes insoluble in the soil, 
remains, on the contrary, where it has been 
strewn ; it may be in excess in certain places, 
and be wholly wanting in others. If rain does 
not disseminate it by mechanical means, it re- 
mains partially without producing any effect." 

SULPHUR. 

Sulphur, commonly called Brimstone, is a solid 
of a yellow color, brittle, moderately hard, and 
devoid of taste or smell. It burns in oxygen or 
air with a blue flame, forming sulpliuvous acid. 
It is this that has the smell commonly attributed 
to sulphur. It occurs in nature both free and 
combined. As free, it is sublimed from the earth 
in some parts of Italy. It also flows from volca- 
noes. It is also very generally disseminated in 
nature, combined with iron, lead, copper, etc., and 
in many soils, as in iron pyrites — a combination 
of iron and sulphur. Sulphur, when united with 
oxygen and water in certain proportions, and 



58 AMERICAN MANURES. 

under certain conditions, produces the hydrated 
sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. 

Sulphuric Acid, or the Oil of Vitriol of com- 
merce, technically termed 66° acid, contains 
anhydrous sulphuric acid, 75 parts, and 25 parts 
of water, in 100. This acid is extensively used 
in the arts and manufactures, and in the pre- 
paration of superphosphate of lime. It enters 
into the composition of all cultivated plants, and 
is usually found in small quantities in all soils, 
forming gypsum or land plaster. It is also 
found in some mineral waters. If needed by 
soils, the cheapest source at the command of the 
farmer is in gypsum or land plaster ; every 100 
lbs. of which, when pure, contain 46.51 lbs. of 
sulphuric acid. 

ELEMENTS COMBINING WITH OXYGEN 
TO FORM BASES. 

Calcium is a solid of a light golden yellow 
color. It is harder than lead, and very malleable. 
It oxidizes slowly in air at the ordinary tempera- 
ture; but when heated to redness it fuses and 
burns with a very brilliant white light, and is 
converted into lime, this lime being an oxide of 
calcium. This oxide occujDies nearly the same 
position among bases as sulphuric acid does 
among acids, and is used in almost all the arts 
and manufactures. 



CALCIUM. 59 

Oxide of Calcium, or Quicklime, is composed 
of one equivalent or 20 parts of calcium, com- 
bined with one equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen. 

Carbonate of Lime, or Limestone, is composed 
of oxide of calcium, combined with carbonic 
acid. When pure, every 100 lbs. of limestone 
contain 44 lbs. of carbonic acid, and 56 of 
oxide of calcium; so that one ton of pure 
limestone contains llj cwt. of oxide of calcium, 
or when burnt an equal amount of quicklime. 
Limestones generally contain a sensible quantity 
of mineral matter, as silica, magnesia, alumina, 
and oxide of iron, with traces of phosphoric acid, 
and sometimes potash and organic matter. This 
foreign matter, in the best quality of limestones, 
does not often exceed five per cent. When lime- 
stones are burnt, the carbonic acid is expelled, 
and the lime is left in the caustic state, as quick- 
lime. When water is applied to quicklime 
great heat is developed, the lime swells and 
cracks, and finally falls to a fine bulky white 
powder. When quicklime is left in the open 
air, it gradually absorbs water from the atmos- 
phere, and finally falls into a fine powder. In 
rich lime the increase of bulk by slaking may 
be 3 to 3 i times. 

Quicklime on combination with water is con- 
verted into hydrate of lime. This hydrate 
consists of 75.68 lbs. of lime, and 24.32 lbs. of 

5 



60 AMERICAN MANURES. 

water cliemically combined; hence 75.68 lbs. of 
quicklime, and 24.32 lbs. of water will produce 
100 lbs. of liydrated or slaked lime. Quicklime 
has a great tendency to reabsorb carbonic acid, 
and, if spread on the soil and there slaked 
by absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, 
more than half of it would be changed back into 
limestone. Hence, lime should be slaked in 
large heaps, and would be still better preserved 
if these heaps were covered wath sods. Lime 
can be applied to the soil, either in its natural 
state, as in limestone, or as burnt lime, or as 
hydrated or slaked lime, with beneficial results. 
Marls are very rich in carbonate of lime, and 
some of the best varieties contain from 50 to 75 
per cent, of it. By appropriate machinery lime- 
stone could be reduced to a fine powder more 
cheaply than by burning, where fuel is scarce 
and dear. Nevertheless, burnt lime is far 
superior to powdered limestone or marl for the 
purpose of agriculture ; one of the reasons being 
that the slaking of lime reduces it to an im- 
palpable powder, much finer than can be effected 
by the most perfect machinery. This extreme 
fineness of division difi'uses it more uniformly 
through the soil, and makes it more readily 
soluble in water; 1000 lbs. of w^ater will hold 
1 lb. of slaked lime in solution : hence, if the 
annual rain-fall on an acre of land be seven 



PROPERTIES OF LIME. 61 

million pounds, seven thousand pounds of hydrate 
)f lime would be made soluble for the use of 
plants, if that amount were present. 

Burnt lime is more beneficial than the car- 
bonate, because it more readily neutralizes the 
acids contained in the soil, and causes the de- 
composition of the vegetable matter therein. 
This change is effected as follows : Most soils 
contain a considerable amount of organic or 
vegetable matter, surrounded by and saturated 
with an atmosphere of carbonic acid, which 
prevents free access of oxygen, the free access 
of which is absolutely necessary to the decom- 
position of this organic and vegetable matter 
Now, if burnt lime be intimately mixed with the 
soil, it absorbs this carbonic acid, and oxygen 
takes its place, and decomposition of this matter 
is the result. The lime, after indirectly pro- 
ducing this result, answers all tlie useful pur- 
poses of carbonate of lime in the form of ground 
limestone, and as it is found in marl ; hence its 
greater value, independent of other considerations. 

The office of lime in the liberation of nitros^en, 
as ammonia, from organic substances, is another 
valuable property. As nitrogen is an element 
necessary to the healthy growth of grains and 
plants used for food, its value herein is apparent. 

Lime has also a beneficial effect on the 
inorganic or mineral matter in soils. Should 



62 AMERICAN MANURES. 

iron be present, as iron pyrites, a compound of 
iron and sulphur ; the lime, by absorbing carbonic 
acid and giving free access to the oxygen of the 
atmosphere, causes a rapid decomposition of this 
compound into peroxide, or rust of iron, and sul- 
phuric acid. This acid at once unites with the 
lime and forms land plaster or gypsum in the 
soil. 

The great source of potash and soda in soils 
is from the disintegration of rocks, such as fel- 
spar and granite. No matter how fine these 
rocks may be reduced, their valuable elements 
are scarcely at all soluble in water without 
previous chemical action. In these rocks, known 
to contain much potash and soda, there must be 
a chemical decomposition before the potash and 
soda can be available to plants. These silicates 
are slowly decomposed by the action of cai'bonic 
acid, but the action is much more rapid in the 
presence of lime ; hence its great value for this 
purpose. 

Another valuable property of lime is, that, 
in the presence of decaying organic matter, it 
will decompose common salt, forming carbonate 
of soda, and chloride of calcium ; the latter being 
the most soluble form in which lime can be pre- 
sented to plants. 

The prominent chemical effects of lime in the 
soil being stated, w^e proceed to notice its physi- 



PEOPERTIES OF LIME. 63 

cal effects, which are no less valuable and strik- 
ing. It gives lightness and friability to heavy 
clay soils, thus facihtating the circulation of 
moisture, air and heat, as well as enabling the 
delicate roots to penetrate readily in all direc- 
tions. It also gives sufficient compactness to 
loose, sandy soils, and corrects the leaching and 
washing out of the valuable fertilizing elements 
they contain. 

The kind of spontaneous vegetation upon soils 
is a good indicator as to whether lime is needed, 
or may be used to advantage. In soils where 
sorrel, or the chestnut, and pine tree grow spon- 
taneously, application of lime is useful, and such 
soils can seldom be cultivated profitably without 
it. 

In relation to the application of lime, we 
would say, that it should at all times be kept as 
near the surface as possible, because its benefi- 
cial effects are greater in the presence of atmos- 
pheric air, and moisture. If placed too deep in 
the soil, these effects would be much less. The 
practice of spreading lime before the land is 
plowed, is not a good one, and ought to be dis- 
continued. A better method is to apply it after 
the land is plowed, and previous to harrowing ; 
this places it near the surface, and conforms to 
the conditions necessary to its maximum useful 
action on decaying vegetable matter, viz., free 



64 AMERICAN MANURES. 

access of oxygen, light and heat. As the hy- 
drate of Ume is soluble in rain water, if placed 
near the surface, it will gradually permeate all 
parts of the soil, and perform all its useful func- 
tions beneath the surfxce, in the fixing and neu- 
tralizing; of oro:anic acids. 

There are various opinions among fiirmers, as 
to whether it is more profitable to apply lime in 
large quantities at rare intervals, or in small 
amount yearly. There is an old saying that, 
"Lime enriches the fathers, but impoverishes 
the sons." This may in some cases be true. 
Lime is a great stimulant to the soil, as already 
shown, and if the amount added is too great for 
the amount of organic matter present, or the 
actual wants of the crops grown, there will be a 
waste of those valuable gases liberated from the 
decaying organic matter, and the store of this 
organic matter contained in the soil will be pre- 
maturely exhausted. The amount of lime added 
to an acre should not be less than forty or fifty 
bushels, and in cases where the jDhysical con- 
dition of the soil requires changing, tis in heavy 
clay soils, or those that contain a large amount 
of organic matter, from one hundred and fifty 
to two hundred bushels may be applied with 
advantage. The judgment of the farmer, 
aided by experience, is his best guide in this 
matter. 



SULPHATE OF LIME. 65 

SULPHATE OF LIME. 

Sulphate of Lime, or Gypsum, is extensively 
applied to the soil as a manure; every 100 
ft)s. contain 46.51 lbs. of sulphuric acid, 32.56 
lbs. of lime, and 20.93 lbs. of chemically com- 
bined water. The value of gypsum as a 
manure has been erroneously attributed to its 
absorbent properties in attracting and retaining 
moisture. Extended experiments have proved 
that it is almost destitute of any absorbing 
power; 100 parts of gypsum will absorb only 1 
part of water in 12 hours, while loamy clay ab- 
sorbs 25 parts, and ordinary soil 16 parts. These 
experiments were extended to 72 hours, but the 
gypsum absorbed no moisture after the first 12, 
which demonstrated that 1 part to 100 is the 
limit of its absorbent power ; while loamy clay 
and ordinary soil absorbed in that time 35 and 
23 parts, respectively. Professor Schuebler per- 
tinently remarks, when speaking of this fact : — 
" Thus theories which are written down, often 
fall to nothing when tested by experiment." 

The beneficial action of gypsum must be traced 
to some other cause. As it is composed of lime 
and sulphuric acid, the benefits resulting from 
its application must be due to one or both of 
these substances. Recent experiments of distin- 
guished chemists, seem to prove that the action 



66 AMERICAN MANURES. 

of gypsum is not due to its lime, except in d 
slight degree. 

One great benefit derived from the use of gyp- 
sum, is in fixing the ammonia contained in the 
oil and the atmosphere. When gypsum and 
carbonate of ammonia are brought into contact, 
under certain conditions, double decomposition 
takes j)lace, resulting in tlie formation of sul- 
phate of ammonia, and carbonate of lime. These 
facts prove that the benefits derived from the 
application of gypsum are principally due to its 
sulphuric acid, which we have already treated 
under that head. 

If lime is the substance needed, it can be ap- 
plied more cheaply as quicklime. • The applica- 
tion of gypsum in small or large quantities is 
often attended with equally beneficial results. 
This can be explained by the fact that it requires 
from four to five hundred pounds of water to 
bring one pound of plaster into solution ; hence 
only a small quantity of it can become available 
in a season, and only that amount need be ap- 
plied. 

MAGNESIUM. 

Magnesium is a white, malleable solid, resem- 
bling silver. It is not altered by dry air, at the 
ordinary temperature, bat is tarnished when ex- 
nosed to moisture. When heated to dull red- 



MAGNESIUM. 67 

ness in atmospheric air or oxygen, it burns with 
a vivid light, and is converted into magnesia, or 
the oxide of magnesium. 

Magnesia is the only oxide formed by magne- 
sium; it contains in 100 lbs., 60.4 lbs. of magne- 
sium, and 39.6 lbs. of oxygen. Its action on soils 
is somewhat similar to that of lime. It is uni- 
formly present in variable quantities, in almost 
all limestones, and when they contain a large 
amount, they are called magnesian limestones ; 
some varieties contain over fifty per cent, of this 
substance. 

Should soils need magnesia, and not conveni- 
ently applicable in combination with lime as 
magnesia limestone, Epsom salts, or sulphate 
of magnesia, can be substituted; and many far- 
mers have found it profitable to apply magnesia 
in this form. A crop of twenty-five bushels of 
wheat, with the straw, would require about lllbs. 
of magnesia, or 63 lbs. of Epsom salts. Little 
more need be said about this element, and as it 
is found in nearly all soils, it seldom requires to 
be added as a fertilizer. It has been noticed by 
f^xrmers, that lime which contains a notable 
amount of this substance, has a more favorable 
effect on a wheat crop than lime containing but 
little of it. Nevertheless, lime that contains a 
very large quantity of magnesia may be injuri- 
ous if the soil already contains a sufficient quan- 



68 AMERICAN MANURES. 

tity ; because magnesia, in its caustic state, does 
not absorb carbonic acid nearly so readily as burnt 
lime, but remains in the soil in this state for a 
much longer period ; besides, it will harden into 
a cement beneath the surface, and lessen the 
friability and porosity of the soil, and interfere 
with the growth of the rootlets. 

Magnesia in large quantity might be applied 
to the soil in the form of ground magnesian 
limestone ; the magnesia in such state would be 
gradually liberated by the acids of the soil, and 
rendered available for the wants of plants as it 
is needed. 

lEON. 

Iron is a solid that is most widely distributed. 
There is scarcely a rock or soil, plant or mineral, 
but contains traces of it, and it scarcely ever be- 
comes necessary to employ it as a manure. Iron 
unites with oxygen in two proportions, forming 
the protoxide and peroxide of iron. These com- 
binations are gradually effected in a moist at- 
mosphere. 

Protoxide of Iron, when pure, is presented in 
the form of a black powder. The scale falling 
from heated iron is largely composed of it. Its 
presence in a large amount in a soil is very inju- 
rious to growing vegetation. Protoxide of iron is 



IRON". 69 

one equivalent of iron combined with one equiva- 
lent of oxygen. 

Peroxide of Iron, or red rust, is composed of 
two equivalents of iron combined with three 
equivalents of oxygen, and is technically called 
'^ sesquioxide of iron." The presence of oxidiz- 
ing iron in a soil liberates free hydrogen, which, 
uniting with the nitrogen contained in the soil, 
forms ammonia. As the rust of iron has slight 
acid properties, it has an affinity for ammonia, 
and fixes and retains this valuable substance in 
a soluble form in the soil. Quite probably the 
injurious effect of the presence of a large amount 
of iron in any cultivated soil, is due to its attrac- 
tion of oxygen, thus interfering with the oxida- 
tion of organic substances in the soil. Such 
soils should be frequently cultivated, and the 
particles pulverized as fine as possible, so as to 
expose every part of it to the action of the oxy- 
gen of the atmosphere, which facilitates the for- 
mation of the peroxide or red rust of iron ; hence 
soils containing a large amount of iron acquire 
a deeper red color under cultivation. Two ad- 
vantages are gained by cultivating such soils : 
First, The hastening of the formation of the per- 
oxide of iron ; Second, The benefits derived by 
the action of this oxide, in absorbing certain 
kinds of plant-food present in the soil. Thus 



70 AMERICAN MANURES. 

forming a storehouse of these substances for the 
future use of plants. 

Sulphate of Iron is formed in soils that contain 
the elements of sulphur and iron. This com- 
pound, when present in large amount, is injuri- 
ous to vegetation. And there are few soils that 
do not contain some of it ; and it is often found 
in low, marshy lands. Soils that contain it in 
such quantity as to be injurious, are very much 
benefited by the addition of lime, or marl ; the 
lime uniting with the sulphuric acid of the sul- 
phate to form gypsum. Iron pyrites, reduced 
to a fine powder, may be applied in small quan- 
tity very advantageously to some soils, when 
iron and sulphuric acid are deficient, and the soil 
abounds in carbonate of lime. But, should the 
soil be deficient in lime, it should be applied at 
the same time either as quicklime or marl. The 
appHcation of gypsum is not necessary to soils 
that contain iron pyrites, as by the application 
of lime to such soils it would be formed more 
cheaply. 

POTASSIUM. 

Potassium is a solid; and was discovered by 
Sir H. Davy, in 1807. It is silver-wdiite in 
color, and lighter in weight than water. If a 
globule of potassium be dropped upon the surface 
of water, it instantly takes fire, and burns with 



POTASH. 71 

a beautiful violet colored flame. Potassium oxi- 
dizes readily in the air, and in water; in the 
latter case, the hydrogen being liberated, and 
the oxygen of the water uniting with the potas- 
sium, forms the liydrate of j^otassa — the caustic 
potash of commerce. 

Potash, when strictly pure, is white and highly 
caustic, destroying both animal and vegetable 
substances, when brought in contact with it. It 
melts at a red heat, and assumes a crystalline 
appearance upon cooling. It requires half its 
weight of water to enter into solution, which is 
accompanied with the evolution of considerable 
heat. It is soluble also in alcohol. Solutions of 
potash are highly alkaline, neutralizing the 
strongest acids. 

Potash is a valuable element in the composi- 
tion of plants. The ash of cultivated plants is 
generally richer in this substance than is that of 
those growing spontaneously. Potash is found 
in most mineral waters, in most soils, and always 
in plants. Potash is often found in nature, in 
combination with nitric acid, forming nitre, or 
saltpetre, which, in some hot countries, forms in- 
crustations on the surface. Such incrustations 
are found in India, Arabia, and South America ; 
also in certain caverns in Ceylon, and some other 
parts of the world. Saltpetre, as found in these 
incrustations or deposits, is always contaminated 



72 AMERICAN MANURES. 

with the nitrate of lime, magnesia, or soda, or 
with their chlorides and sulphates. 

Potash, as before stated, exists in plants ; in 
general, combined principally with organic 
acids. This potash may be extracted from the 
ashes of wood and plants, by lixiviation with 
lime and water. If the water of the caustic 
lye thus produced be evaporated, and the resi- 
due be calcined, in order to eliminate any organic 
matter remaining, crude caustic of potash is pro- 
duced. This crude substance contains about 60 
per cent, of potash, mixed with various impuri- 
ties, together with a considerable amount of 
chloride of potassium (muriate of potash), and 
sulphate and silicate of potassa. This crude 
potash is largely used in the manufacture of 
soap and glass ; and, until the recent discovery 
of extensive deposits of crude potash salts at 
Stassfurth, in Prussia, was the source of most 
of the salts of potassa used in the arts and in 
medicine. 

The value of wood ashes as a manure was 
known at an early period. The old Roman 
farmers used it, and practised paring and burn- 
ing the soil, and also burnt the stubble of their 
wheat fields, in order to enrich the succeedino^ 
crop ; a practice which was also prevalent 
among the ancient Jews. Cato recommends the 
burning of leaves and branches of trees, and 



SODIUM. 73 

spreading the ashes upon the land. According 
to Pliny, the ancient Britons used to barn their 
wheat straw and stubble, and scatter the ashes 
upon the land. 

On the farm, no substance containing potash 
should be allowed to go to waste. Every parti- 
cle of wood ashes, leached and unleached, should 
be applied to the soil, together with the ashes of 
dead branches of trees, of weeds and of leaves, 
and of whatever contains potash. By this 
means the farmer may often obtain a supply, 
more cheaply than in any other shape. 

SODIUM. 

Sodium is a solid ; and was discovered by Sir 
H. Davy, in 1807. It is lustrous, and of a yel- 
lowish-white color, more nearly resembling silver 
than potassium, to which, in other physical pro- 
perties, it is similar. When heated in air or 
oxygen, it burns with a bright yellow flame. 
Like potassium, it is lighter than water, which 
it decomposes with great rapidity, liberating the 
hydrogen and combining with the oxygen, thus 
forming soda, which, having an affinity for 
water, combines with a certain amount of it, 
and becomes the hydrate of soda — caustic soda 
of commerce. Soda was originally obtained from 
the ashes of marine plants, but is now obtained 



74 AMERICAN MANURES. 

in large quantities by the decomposition of com- 
mon salt. 

Nitrate of Soda, like that of potash, occurs as 
an incrustation on the surface of the earth, in 
some places, especially in Chili and Peru, where 
it is found in beds of considerable thickness. 
Large quantities of this nitrate are used as ma- 
nure to furnish nitric acid and soda to the soil. 
But as most soils contain soda in sufficient quan- 
tity for the wants of vegetation, the chief value 
of this product is due to the nitric acid which it 
contains, and which is a source of nitrogen. 

Soda enters into the composition of plants, 
but in much less quantity than potash. Some 
think that if there is a deficiency of potash, soda 
may wholly take its place ; but this opinion has 
not, so far as we are informed, been verified in 
practice. The cheapest mode of furnishing soda 
to soils is in the form of common salt. 

Common Salt occurs abundantly in nature, 
both in the earth and in sea water. It is com- 
posed of clilorine and sodium ; 100 parts, when 
pure, containing 60.68 of clilorine, and 39.32 of 
sodium. Salt has been applied as manure in all 
ages and countries ; and yet there is no substance 
used as manure that has been the subject of so 
much controversy among practical farmers, some 
denying that it exerts any beneficial influence, 
while others ascribe to it wonderful manurial 



ACTION" OF SALT. 75 

properties. Common salt may be detected in 
nearly all soils, and its elements are found in tlie 
ash of almost all plants. 

The action of Salt in small quantity in soils, 
generally, is to assist in decomposing the vegeta- 
ble and animal matter present. In large quan- 
tity it is very injurious, in fact, making the land 
completely sterile. Hence the practice in an- 
cient times of sowing large quantities of salt 
upon the land surrounding conquered cities, thus 
indicating the will of the conquerer, that the 
land should be desolate and the conquered city 
no longer habitable. 

Some plants and trees are injured by salt 
much more readily than others. When applied 
in excess to some fruit trees, as the apple, plum, 
cherry and apricot, the leaves wdther and die 
within a short time; the willow, poplar and 
beech are affected in the same way. On the 
other hand, some species of oak, the mulberry, 
the pear, and the peach, and some other trees 
with deep roots, do not suffer from its applicar 
tion ; neither do asparagus, onions, celery, etc. : 
indeed, the growth of these plants is improved 
by its use. 

Salt acts as an exterminator of some kinds of 
insects in the soil. It has likewise been found 
effective in destroying the wire-worm, and in 
preventing mildew and rust. The danger of its 



76 AMERICAN MANURES. 

application for the destruction of vermin is in 
the fact that, if the solution be strong enough to 
effect the object, it may destroy the vegetation 
also. 

If there is sufficient salt in the soil to supply 
soda and chlorine to the plant, it is not advisable 
to add more for any ^Dhysical effect it may pro- 
duce in the decomposition of organic substances ; 
and generally, as an excess is very injurious, it 
should in all cases be applied with great caution. 
As an example of the small amount generally 
required, we may state that a crop of 25 bushels 
of wheat, together with the straw, contains only 
a little more than 5 lbs. of soda, and 22 lbs. of 
chlorine, which 10 lbs. of common salt will fur- 
nish. 

If soda alone, and not chlorine is needed, it 
can be cheaply supplied in the form of sulphate 
of soda or salt cake, which is a by-product in the 
manufacture of hydrochloric acid, and in which 
the chlorine of the salt is replaced by sulphuric 
acid. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS SHOWING ALSO THE 

AMOUNT OF THE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS NECES- 
SARY TO BE ADDED AS MANURES TO PRODUCE 
A GIVEN CROP. 

Plants of the same kind have nearly a like 
composition ; and the relative proportions of the 
elements that enter into the composition of 
different plants are almost always the same in 
each particular species. The ashes of the same 
kind of plants, though grown on different soils, 
closely resemble each other in chemical com- 
position. There may be a slight diminution of 
some particular element, from a lack of it in the 
soil; but the variation can never be large 
enough to materially affect the value of the 
plant for food. 

Wheat and Corn, if produced at all, must be 
produced of nearly a standard quality ; that is, 
with a certain quantity of the different elements. 
If the grains of wheat or corn could grow and 

ripen without the aid of nitrogen or ammonia, 

77 



rr 



8 AMERICAN MANURES. 



they would lack one of the most essential ele- 
ments of nutrition, viz., the power of renewing 
the blood, the nervous tissues and muscular fibre; 
or, if the plant could grow and the seed ripen 
without the aid of phosphoric acid, there would 
be no substance furnished to build up the bones ; 
or, if it lacked the three elements of nitrogen, 
lime and phosphoric acid, it would afford scarce- 
ly anything to the animal body, except carbon, 
for furnishing animal heat. The wheat and 
seeds found in the catacombs of Egypt, where 
they have lain two or three thousand years, 
have almost an identical composition with those 
grown at the present time. The wheat grown 
in this country has very nearly the same com- 
position as that grown in other parts of iliQ 
world. Hence, as there can be but very little 
variation in the composition of each species of 
plants used for food, while the physical laws of 
nature remain as they now are, there can, con- 
sequently, be no variation in tlie kind and quan- 
tity of the elements required by plants to enable 
them to come to maturity. 

When a knowledge of the nature of these 
elements is acquired, and the quantity necessary 
for a given crop ascertained, the accumulation 
of these materials is just as simple as that of 
furnishing the raw material for any manufacture. 
Accurate knowledge of those substances in soils 



COMrOSlTIOiN" OF PLANTS. 79 

that render them fertile when present, and 
barren when absent, should be the first lesson 
of the farmer who wishes to be successful in his 
business and pursue it on a rational basis. 

The methods employed for manuring and 
cultivating lands vary in different countries, 
and in different sections of the same country. 
Certain local circumstances seem to control these 
differences ; but in most cases they are only the 
result of custom or ignorance. Hence, if we 
inquire in what manner manure acts, we are 
likely to receive the following answer, even 
from otherwise intelligent men : — " Its action is 
a mystery ; we know that we cannot raise crops 
without it, and hence we use it in our soils." 
The excrements of men and animals are supposed 
by them to contain a mysterious something, 
which assists the growth of plants, and increases 
the amount of production ; and the more filthy 
and unsavory the substance, the more value it 
is supposed to contain. 

Accurate knowledge of the constituents of 
different cultivated plants is all important ; we 
should know what we are going to produce ; 
otherwise how can we work intelligently to 
produce it. 

All plants cultivated for the use of man may 
be classified as follows : 

I, Potash Plants — the ash of which contains 



80 AMERICAN MANURES. 

more than half its weight of alkaline bases — 
potash and soda. Among the cultivated potash 
plants, are Indian corn, beets, turnips and pota- , 
toes. 

II. Lime Plants — the bulk of the ash of which 
is composed of the salts of lime and magnesia. 
Among these are beans, peas, clover and to- 
bacco. 

III. Silloa Plants — those in which silica pre- 
dominates. Among these are wheat, rye, oats 
and barley. ^ 

This is only a general classification. The 
farmer should know the actual amount of each 
of the elements of fertility required by an aver- 
age crop of any kind of plant he cultivates. A 
field properly prepared for culture ought to con- 
tain a sufficient quantity of all the inorganic 
materials required for the intended crop, and in 
a form adapted for assimilation by the plant ; 
together with a certain amount of ammoniacal 
salts or nitrates and decaying vegetable matter. 
For instance, if it is the intention of the farmer 
to raise potatoes, he should know that both lime 
and potash are required, and what quantity of 
each ; for the potatoe belongs to the lime plants, 
as regards its leaves^ and the potash plant as 
regards its tubers. In raising beets, phosphate 
of magnesia is required, and only a small quan- 
tity oi' lime ; but in growing turnips much phos- 



ALBUMEN AND STARCH. 81 

phate of lime is required, and only a small 
(juantity of magnesia. 

To make this subject intelligible and of great 
\alue to the farmer, we shall give tables show- 
ing the composition of the grain and straw, and 
the foots and tops of the plants commonly culti- 
vated. A study of these tables will amply 
repay him, by giving accurate knowledge of the 
composition of plants, which is the only key to 
what is neeclectin manures to produce them. It 
will also, in connection with a knowledge of the 
constituents of his soil, enable him to understand 
the philosophy of a rotation of crops, and to select 
that which is best suited to his land, and the 
manures at his command ; and especially enable 
him to estimate the value of the waste products 
of his farm, and to apply them to the best advan- 
tage. 

All plants and seeds cultivated for food con- 
tain albumen and starch ; the starch and sugar 
are produced in the plant from carbonic acid and 
water; the albumen and gluten result from the 
mutual action of the same compounds, together 
with ammonia, or nitric acid, and certain sulphates 
{^nd phosphates, but the manner by which this 
is effected is a mystery that has not been fully 
solved by the most laborious investigation. 
Plants are valuable as food in proportion to the 
aiTiOunt of albumen and starch they contain. 



82 



AMERICAN MANURES. 



Table showing the percentage of moisture ; of albuminous and 
glutmous compounds; of starch, gum, sugar and woody fibre ; 
and of ash and nitrogen, and the equivalent in ammonia 
contained in the different products. It also sliows their 
relative value as food : 



I B 



Common Grass. . . 

Clover Hay 

Barley Straw 

Oat Straw , 

Wheat Straw 

Corn Stalks 

Carrots 

Turnips 

Potatoes 

Peas 

Beans 

Indian Corn 

Rye.. 

Oats 

Barley 

Wheat 

Buckwheat 

Kice 

Cotton Seed Cake 



CO 
00 
94 
•2.5 
42 
20 
20 
43 
00 
80 
•75 
■00 
00 
10 
'75 
55 
20 
10 
00 



O'S 



cO 



2-OG 
8-12 
1-80 
2-15 
1-80 
1-08 
1-.50 
1-35 
2-20 



S O 



47' 
68' 
82' 
84 
86 
83 
12 
7' 
21 



23-40 (-,2 



22-81 
11-25 
10-57 
14-20 
14-50 
19-50 
9-50 
6-27 
35-00 



65 
70 
77, 
67 
73 
69' 
83 
78' 
34- 



74 
38 
12 
50 
66 
22 
■40 
72 
90 
70 
04 
75 
33 
20 
10 
10 
10 
23 
50 



2-20 
7-50 
5-14 
5.10 
5-12 
5.50 
0-90 
0-50 
0-90 
3.10 
3-40 
3-00 
2.10 
3-50 
3-65 
2-85 
2-20 
0-40 
4-50 



100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
10000 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
100-00 
•100-00 
10000 



0-33 
1-30 
0-35 
0-39 
0-35 



P4 



0-40 
1-58 
0-42 
0-47 
0-42 
0-24 0-29 
0-24:0-29 
0-21 ()-25 
0-35 0-42 



3-74 
3-G5 
1-18 



4-54 
4-43 
1-43 



1-69 2-05 
2-27 2-75 



2-32 
2-41 



2-81 
2-92 



1-52 j 1-84 
l-00|l-21 
5-6016-80 



ALBUMEN AND STARCH. 83 

Albumen and Gluten contain nitrogen; and 
this nitrogen renews the blood and builds up the 
lean muscular part of the bodj. Besides, albu- 
men and gluten enter into the composition of 
the bones. 

Starch and Gum contain no nitrogen, but are 
rich in carbon. This carbon is required to 
produce and keep up the animal heat of the 
body. Men and animals when healthy and 
taking plenty of exercise, by which their respira- 
tion is quickened, and especially in cold weather, 
require large amounts of carbon, which uniting 
with the oxygen of the atmosphere forms carbonic 
acid. This chemical union is, strictly speaking, 
a combustion of the carbon, similar to that of a 
slow fire, and produces the animal heat of the 
body. The chemical composition of starch, gum, 
and sugar are analogous. The fat of animals, if 
pure, contains no nitrogen, but it is composed of 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Should an animal 
be debarred from exercise and fed upon a sub- 
stance rich in carbon, as Indian corn or rice, it 
woLdd rapidly increase in fat. Carnivorous ani- 
mals are nearly destitute of fat, while domestic 
stall-fed animals acquire a large amount of it. 
If the fattened animal is allowed exercise, or set 
to work, the fat quickly disappears. 

Dogs and cats, when fed on a mixed diet, 
accumulate fat; so that by feeding them with 



84 AMERICAN MANURES. 

food containing a large amount of carbon, and a 
small amount of nitrogen, and allowing them 
but little exercise, the increase .of fat can be 
controlled at pleasure. 

Woody Fibre is rich in carbon, but it is not in 
a form to be readily assimilated on account of its 
insolubility. For this reason, the carbon con- 
tained in wheat, in corn, and in potatoes, in the 
form of starch and gum, is the principal source 
of supply for man. Woody fibre can be changed 
to starch and sugar in the laboratory of the 
chemist, but the digestive organs of men and 
animals are inadequate to the production of this 
result ; otherwise, animals might be fattened on 
saw-dust or pine shavings. 

The process of fattening depends upon the 
fact, that too small an amount of oxygen is 
taken into the system by respiration to consume 
the carbon in the food, the unconsumed part 
being in such case changed into fat. Hence it 
is, that animals at rest, or taking but little 
exercise, if fed upon food containing much starch 
or gum, fatten rapidly ; because then respiration 
being less frequent and full, too small an amount 
of oxygen is taken into the lungs to consume the 
carbon. The foregoing Table also furnishes in- 
formation as to the relative value of the several 
grasses and grains named for fattening. 



INORGANIC ELEMENTS. 



85 



Table showing the amount of inorganic and mineral substances 
usually found in 100 lbs. of the plants named in their mar- 
ketable condition : — serves as a key to the application of 
the proper elements, as fertilizers. 



Wheat 

Wheat Straw 

Rye 

Rye Straw 

Barley 

Barley Straw 

Oats 

Oat Straw 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat Straw.. 

Indian Corn 

Corn Stalks 

Peas 

Pea Straw 

Beans 

Bean Straw 

Potatoes 

Beets 

Carrots • 

'i'urnips 






■46 

08 



0-09 

0-40 

0-07 

0-41 

0-05 

0-44 

0-11 

0-37 

0-13 

1-10 

0-03 

0-59 

0-U 

1-94 

0-25 

1-51 

0-01 

0-03 

0-09 

0-08 



0-31 

0-17 

0-23 

0-15 

017 

0-14 

0-21 

0-19 

0-20 

0-21 

0-27 

0-31 

0-19 

0-36 

0-17 

0-43 

0-02 

0-04 

0-04 

0-02 



0-07 
4-77 
0-52 
3-01 
0-53 
3-44 
0-13 
2-47 
0-02 
0-33 
0-08 
2-72 
0-02 
0-27 
0-24 
0-33 
0-Oi 
0-02 
0-02 
0-01 



02 
05 
02 
04 
01 

01 
•04 
■02 

02 
09 
02 
07 
09 
10 
06 
04 
07 
02 



0-80 
0-79 
0-57 
0-80 
0-44 
1-29 
0-4G 
1-00 
0-17 
2-76 
0-52 
1-99 
1-00 
1-07 
1-34 
1-96 
0-20 
0-21 
0-29 
0-32 



0-08 
0-11 
0-09 
0-11 
0-14 
0-24 
0-07 
0-30 
0-40 
0-13 
0-26 
0-07 
0-08 
0-28 
0-05 
0-52 



0-05 
0-16 
0-06 



1-00 
0-37 
0-91 
0-27 
0-67 
0-27 
0-63 
0-20 
1-00 
0-61 
0-89 
0-45 
0-87 
0-35 
0-96 
0-47 
0-06 
0-06 
0-08 
0-07 



0-12 
0-17 
0-50 
0-10 
0-12 
0-22 
0-45 
0-16 
0-44 
0-31 
0-10 
0-28 
0-11 
0-30 
0-13 
0-13 
0-02 
0-02 
0-05 
0-08 



The foreixoino; Table exhibits the average results 
of many analyses of the plants named; by the 
most distinguished agricultural chemists of this 
country and Europe. It must not be supposed 



86 AMERICAN MANURES. 

that it gives the exact composition in every case. 
Still it is near enough for all practical purposes, 
and furnishes a very reliable guide to manuring. 

We shall now show the different amounts of 
inorganic and mineral substances required by a 
good crop of different plants, on an acre of land. 
This information will show the relative value of 
manures and fertilizers in producing crops, and 
the kind and amount required. 

It is a fact known to farmers, that if they 
can raise good crops of wheat on their land, 
they can raise a good crop of almost any 
other plant adapted to the climate and soil. 
Hence, a study of the wheat crop will serve to 
show all the essential elements of fertility. In 
100 parts or pounds of wheat, about 97 h are 
combustible, being carbon and nitrogen, and the 
elements of water — hydrogen and oxygen ; and 
of the straw from 92 to 94 parts are also 
combustible. 

The grain and straw of wheat has the average 
chemical composition shown in the following 
Table: 

Grain. Straw. 

Carbon 46-10 48-48 

Hydrogen 5-80 5-41 

Oxygen 43-40 38-79 

Nitrogen 2-29 -35 

Asli 2-41 6-97 

100 00 TAo-oo 



PEA STRAW AND CLOVER. 87 

The greatest proportional difference in the 
combustible part of wheat and its straw is in 
the relative amount of nitrogen. The reader 
will notice that there is in equal weights nearly 
seven times as much nitrogen in the grain as in 
the straw. If the farmer had to rely on decaying 
straw to furnish the necessary amount of nitrogen, 
it would require 700 lbs. of straw to furnish 
enough for 100 lbs. of the grain of wheat, 
and a crop of 25 bushels to the acre, or 1500 
lbs. of wheat, would require over five tons of 
straw to furnish the nitrogen required. On the 
other hand, one half of this amount will furnish 
the phosphoric acid and the other elements re- 
quired for the grain. But, if the farmer manured 
with pea straw, or clover, the case Avould be 
different, as the following analyses of clover and 
pea straw will show : 

Pea Straw. Clover Hay. 

Carbon 45-80 47-40 

Hydrogen 5-00 5-00 

Oxygen 35-57 38-60 

Nitrogen 2-31 1-30 

Ash 11-32 7-70 

100-00 100-00 

Pea straw contains as much nitrogen, weight 
for weight, as wheat ; and when cut in proper 
time and cured properly, it makes the best of 
fodder and the best of manure. Clover is very 
nearly as valuable for both purposes. 



88 AMERICAN MANURES. 

The ash left after carefully burning the seeds 
and straw or stems of cultivated plants, is very 
nearly the same in chemical composition for 
each variety. The variations found are no 
greater tiian might be expected from- the in- 
fluence of climate and soil. The farmer should 
uniformly determine to raise a maximum amount 
from each cultivated acre of his land. This 
result is nearly as much under his command, as 
that of the mechanic or laborer who commences 
the work of the day with a determination of 
performing a certain amount of work, and who 
but for that determination, and the proper use of 
his tools or hands, would accomplish much less. 

The following amounts of different crops have 
been year after year raised from an acre of 
ordinary land, by the proper application of 



manures : 



Wheat 25 bushels, 

Rye 30 " 

Buck wheat.. 30 " 
Potatoes.. 100 " 



Corn 50 bushels. 

Oats 50 

Barley 30 

Two tons of Hay. 



" What has been done can be done again ;" 
and why should it not ? A determination to do, 
and the application of the proper means, are all 
that is required. Only when such crops are 
raised, can farming be said to be a successful and 
remunerative business. How common is the 
complaint among our farmers, that after allowing 



WHEAT. 89 

ordinary wages for their own labor, and paying 
expenses, they "do not realize legal interest on 
the money invested in their land and improve- 
ments. This need not and should not be the 
case. In many parts of England, more is paid 
yearly as rent than would purchase land equally 
as good in this country ; yet these renters not 
only live well, but frequently become wealthy. 
We will now show what quantity of the ele- 
ments that can be applied as manures the above 
named crops contain. 

WHEAT. 

Twenty-five bushels of wheat, of 60 lbs. to the 
bushel, the estimated product of an acre, weigh 
1500 lbs. ; the straw for this weight of grain will 
average 3000 lbs. The wheat and straw contain 
the following weights of the elements, which is 
the amount of each tahen from each acre of land 
by such a crop : 

Grain. Straw. Total. 

* Ammonia 41-71 lbs. 10.18 lbs. 51-89 lbs. 

Phosphoric acid.. 15-00 " IMO " 2G-10 " 

Sulphuric acid... 1-80 " 5-10 " 6-90 " 

Lime 1-35 " 12-00 " 13-35 " 

Magnesia 4-65 " 5-10 " 9-75 " 

Potash 12-00 " 23-70 " 35-70 " 

Silica 1-05 " 143-10 " 144-15 " 

The Table shows also the relative amounts of 
the different elements required to raise wheat. 

* In this and similar cases the *' elements of ammonia" are meant. 



90 AMERICAN MANURES. 

The reader will notice the large amount of silica 
required for the straw. Too little attention has 
been given to economizing this substance, silica, 
by wheat growers in this country. In building 
up the structure of the straw, soluble silica is 
indispensable. The straw and the roots consti- 
tute the chemical apparatus for the preparation 
and assimilation of the different elements re- 
quired by the grain itself. Hence it is evident, 
that if there is not enough of soluble silica to 
give this preliminary structure its proper de- 
velopment, there will be only a small amount of 
grain produced, however rich the soil may be 
in the other elements required. 

Silica to be available to the plant must be in 
a soluble condition; and, as the farmer must 
wait for the slow formation or liberation of this 
substance in the soil, the alternating of wheat 
with other crops that require but little of it, 
will allow time for it to accumulate in the soil 
for the raising of wheat crops at proper intervals. 

INDIAN CORN. 

Fifty bushels of corn — the estimated crop of an 
acre— of 68 lbs. to the bushel = 2900 lbs. This 
weight of corn will require 3000 lbs. of stalk 
and cob (when dry), and will contain : — 



RYE. 91 

Grain. Stalk and Cob. Total. 

Ammonia 34-22 lbs. 6-00 lbs. 40-22 lbs. 

Phosphoric acid 25-81 - 13-50 " 39-31 " 

Sulphuric acid 2-90 " 8-40 '' 11-30 " 

Lime -87- 17-70" 18-57" 

Magnesia 7-83 " 9-30 " 17-13 " 

Potaph 15-08 " 59-70 " 74-78 " 

Silica 2-32 " 81-60 " 83-92 " 

The reader will notice that Indian corn re- 
quires much more phosphoric acid and potash 
than wheat, while the amount of ammonia" is 
only a little more than half as much; conse- 
quently, its nutritive properties as food are in 
about the same proportion ; that is, in proportion 
to the ammonia. Corn stalks contain a large 
amount of potash and silica, and, when properly 
prepared as manures, will furnish these elements 
for other crops. From the comparatively small 
amount of ammonia required by the corn crop, 
it can be raised at less cost to the soil than wheat, 
because ammonia is one of the most costly of the 
organic elements. 

EYE. 

Thirty bushels — the estimated product of an 
acre— of 50 lbs. to the bushel = 1500 lbs. ; the 
same weight as 25 bushels of wheat. This crop 
requires at least 3000 lbs. of straw. The grain 

and straw contain : 

7 



92 AMERICAN MANURES. 

Grain. Straw. Total. 

Ammonia 34-05 lbs. 8*70 lbs. 42-75 lbs. 

Phosphoric Acid 13-65 " 8-10 " 21-75 " 

Sulphuric Acid 7-50" 3-00" 10-50" 

Lime 1-05 " 12-30 " 13-35 " 

Magnesia 2-25 " 4-50 " 6-75 " 

Potash 8-55 " 24-00 " 32-55 " 

Silica 7-80 " 90-00 " 97-80 " 

By comparing the above Table with the one 
giving the composition of wheat, the reader can 
understand why larger contlnitous crops of rye 
than of wheat can be raised from the same soil ; 
because rye does not require so much of those 
elements which are first exhausted in soils as 
wheat does. In like manner, by studying the 
composition of different crops, and noting the 
amounts of the different elements required to 
produce them, we can understand why farmers 
should have a dollar for a bushel of wheat, when 
corn is selling at fifty cents, and rye at seventy- 
five. Such an examination shows that the 
quantity, and consequently the price of any crop, 
are naturally regulated by the amount of certain 
valuable substances required for its production. 

OATS. 

Fifty bushels of oats^the estimated product 
of an acre — of 33 lbs. to the bushel = 1650 lbs. 
This amount of grain requires about 2000 lbs. 
of straw. The grain and straw contain : 



BARLEY. 93 

Gniin. Straw. Total. 

Ammonia 37-45 lbs. 7-80 lbs. 45-25 lbs. 

Phosphoric Acid 10-39" 4-00" 14-59" 

Sulphuric Acid 6-G2 " 3-20 " 9-82 " 

Lime 1-81" 7-40"' 9-21" 

Magnesia 3-47 " 3-80 " 7-27 " 

Potash 7-59 " 6-00 " 13-59 " 

Silica 2-14 " 45-40 " 47-54 " 

The reader will note the large amount of am- 
monia required by this crop. This accounts for 
the nutritive properties of the grain and straw. 
The amount of phosphoric acid and potash is 
small compared with that of other cereals. 

BARLEY. 

Thirty bushels of barley — the estimated pro- 
duct of an acre — of 48 lbs. to the bushel = 1440 
lbs. The straw weighs 2000 lbs. The grain and 
straw contain : 

Grain. Straw. Total. 

Ammonia 33-40 lbs. 7*60 lbs. 41-00 lbs. 

Phosphoric Acid. 9-64 " 5-40 " 15-04 " 

Sulphuric Acid... 1-73 " 4-40 " 6-13 " 

Lime -72 " 8-80 " 9-52 " 

Magnesia. 2-44" 2-80" 5-24" 

Potash 6-33 " 25-80 " 32-13 " 

Silica 7-63" 68-80" 76-43" 

Oat and barley straw are good manures, as 
they are rich sources of nitrogen, containing, as 
they do, a large percentage of ammonia. From 
this cause also, they make good fodder for cattle. 
Only a small amount of phosphoric acid and pot- 
ash is required for these straws, while the amount 



94 AMERICAN MANURES. 

of silica is only one half of that required for 
wheat straw. 

BUCKWHEAT. 

Thirty bushels of buckwheat — the estimated 
product of an acre — of 40 lbs. to the bushel 
= 1200 lbs. The straw weighs about 2000 lbs. 
The grain and straw contain: 

Grain. Straw. Total. 

Ammonia 18-24 lbs. 1-20 lbs. 19-44 lbs. 

Phosphoric Acid. 12-00 '' 12-20" 24-20" 

Sulphuric Acid.. 5-22 " 6-20 " 11-42 " 

Lime 1-56 " 22-00 " 23-.56 " 

Magnesia 2-40 " 4-20 " 6-60 " 

Potash 2-04 " 55-20 " 57-24 " 

Silica 0-24" 6-60" 6-84" 

The reader will notice that this crop i^equires 
a large amount of potash, while the amount of 
ammonia and phosj)horic acid is comparatively 
small. The potash seems to take the place of 
silica in the formation of the straw, as only a 
small amount of that substance is required. As 
this straw contains very little ammonia, it is 
almost worthless as fodder ; but as manure it is 
valuable for its phosphoric acid, lime and potash. 

POTATOES. 

One hundred bushels of potatoes, of 60 lbs. to 
the bushel = 6000 lbs. of tubers. The tops, when 
dry, weigh about 3000 lbs. ; and the tops and 
tubers of such a crop contain : 



CLOVER HAY. 95 

Tubers. Tops. Total. 

Ammonia 21-00 lbs. 1-50 lbs. 22-50 lbs. 

Phosphoric Acid 3300 " 18-00 " 51-00 " 

Sulphuric Acid. 12-60 " 15-50 " 28-10 " 

Lime 4-20 " 55-00 " 59-20 " 

Magnesia 7-80" 10-50'' 18-30" 

Potash 109-00 " 70-00 " 179-00 " 

Silica 13-00" 30-00" 43-00" 

Twenty bushels of wheat require 15 lbs. of 
phosphoric acid for the grain, and 11 lbs. for the 
straw ; while 100 bushels of potatoes require 
double this amount. Hence, two medium crops 
of wheat exhaust only as much of this valuable 
element as one crop of potatoes. Also, only one- 
sixth the amount of potash required for potatoes 
is necessary for the wheat crop. In raising pota- 
toes, few farmers supply a sufficient amount of 
phosphoric acid and potash. Hence, this plant 
and its tubers have become constitutionally 
deteriorated on most farms, and liable to speedy 
decay. A bushel of potatoes contains only about 
one-seventh the amount of nitrogen contained in 
a bushel of wheat, and its nutritive value for the 
production of blood and muscle is in the same 
proportion. 

CLOVER HAY. 

Two tons, or 4000 lbs., of dried clover may be 
considered an average crop per acre. This 
amount contains : 



96 AMERICAN MANURES. 



Ammonia 52*00 lbs. 

Phosphoric Acid.. 19*76 " 
Sulphuric Acid... 7*50 " 



Lime 75*00 lbs. 

Magnesia 21*00 " 

Potash 80 69 " 



Silica 18*65 lbs. 

Clover requires a large amount of potash and 
ammonia, while the amount of silica required is 
small. Great benefits are realized by growing 
this crop; it sends its roots deep into the soil, 
and brings up the phosphate and sulphate of 
lime, also potash and magnesia; and when the 
clover is plowed under, as a green manure, it 
furnishes a large amount of the nitrogen re- 
quired for a heavy crop of wheat. 

AM Root Crops require a rich soil to do well. 
Twenty tons of Turnips or Carrots, with the tops, 
— which is a large crop for an acre, — require: 

Turnips. Carrots. 

Ammonia 42*00 lbs. 48*00 lbs 

Phosphoric Acid 45*00 " 39*00 " 

Sulphuric Acid 50*00 " 57*00 " 

Lime 90*00 " 197*00 " 

Magnesia 14*00 " 29*00 " 

Potash 140*00 " 134*00 " 

Silica 55*00 " 60*00 " 

Tobacco and Cotton require a rich soil to 
grow luxuriantly, as the following Table, showing 
the amounts, in pounds, of inorganic elements 
contained in 1000 lbs. of the stems and leaf of 
tobacco, and the fibre, seed and stalk of cotton, 
in their air-dried state, will show : 



TOBACCO AND COTTON. 97 

Cotton. 

, " X 

T()b;icco. Fibre. Seed. Stalk. 

Phosphoric Acid 8-6 8-3 14-8 5-5 

Sulphuric Acid 9-3 5-6 I'G 05 

Lime 88-8 25-7 2-4 7-0 

Magnesia 25-0 14-5 5-6 2-2 

Potash 73-7 54-0 14-4 8-8 

Sihca 230 1-3 34 25 

We regret that we could not obtain reliable 
analyses of cotton and tobacco, showing the 
amount of nitrogen or ammonia required. The 
reader can see that in raising tobacco, a large 
amount of lime and potash is required, while the 
amount of phosphoric acid is small. The cotton 
plant requires more phosphoric acid, but either 
crop can be raised more readily and profitably 
from ordinary soils, where climate is suitable, 
than either wheat or corn. 

The foregoing Tables are of great value to the 
farmer and planter, in showing them the amount 
of the different valuable elements required by dif- 
ferent crops ; also, how far the commercial manures 
of a known composition are able to supply the 
material for these crops. If the reader wishes to 
know how much of those elements which are 
not usually applied as principal constituents of 
manures, such as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, 
iron, soda, and carbon, is required by plants, he 
may refer to the Tables on pages 82 and 85, 
which will show him the percentage of these 



98 AMEEICAN MANURES. 

substances ; and from these he can readily calcu- 
late the amount required by different crops for 
an acre. 

Every crop should be supplied with the full 
amount of all the substances needed to bring it 
to maturity. That this vital principle is not 
understood, or at least attended to, is painfully 
evident from an examination of the statistics 
furnished in the reports of the Agricultural De- 
partment, at Washington. By these reports we 
find that the average of the amounts of the 
different crops raised on an acre in thirty States 
of the Union is, as follows : 



Wheat 11-56 bushels. 

Indian Corn. 28*00 " 

Eye 13-30 

Oats 23-95 



Barley 19-14 bushels. 

Buckwheat. 17-68 " 
Potatoes... 93-23 
Hay 1-28 tons. 



The above averages show conclusively that 
there is a great necessity for a more extended 
use of manufactured manures. 

Even Pennsylvania, that boasts of her fertile 
soils and the perfection of her system of agricul- 
ture, produces only the following average of the 
above named crops per acre: 



Wheat 12-8 bushels. 

Eye 13-0 

Barley 21-4 

Potatoes 88-0 " 



Indian Corn.. .35-0 bushels. 

Oats 27-8 " 

Buckwheat, . 16-5 " 
Hay 1-3 tons 



But this will favorably contrast with South 



AVERAGE CROPS. 99 

Carolina, which shows the lowest average pro- 
duction, as follows : 



7 

Corn 10-2 bushels. 

Oats 9-7 

Potatoes... lOrO 



Wheat 5-6 bushels 

Eye 5-0 

Barley 9-0 



The crop of potatoes exceeds the general aver- 
age, but the amount of the other crops raised 
must afford a very inadequate remuneration to 
the farmer, barely exceeding the cost of seed, 
cultivation, and preparation for market. The 
principal cause of this state of things is the ig- 
norance of the farmer of what substances he 
needs, in kind and quantity to produce the in- 
tended crop. A full knowledge of what and 
how much plants need to insure their healthy 
growth, will induce the farmer to use all care 
and economy in saving, preparing, and applying 
these substances. The Tables already given are 
invaluable in giving this information. But there 
are necessary conditions that must be complied 
wdth. A plant contains various substances, and 
every one of these must be present to enable it 
to come to maturity. Besides, these substances 
must be in a condition to become soluble in wa- 
ter, either alone or in combination with other 
substances with which they are brought in contact 
in the soil, during the time that intervenes be- 
tween the planting and the gathering of the 
crop. This is. a very intricate subject, and 



100 AMERICAN MANURES. 

alFords a broad field for speculation and research, 
and, when fully understood, will be a guide to 
the fixing of the relative values of the different 
elements essential to the growth of plants. 

The reader who has carefully perused our 
work thus far, should have acquired a general 
knowledge of the different substances entering 
into the growth of plants. He should know 
why some soils will produce one crop and not 
another, and why two crops of the same kind 
cannot profitably be raised in succession, on the 
same land. Also, that some crops take from the 
land more of one substance than of another ; and 
that wheat exhausts the soil of its most valuable 
constituents much sooner than corn, rye or oats. 
He should understand the true philosophy of the 
rotation of crops ; also, why the straw of wheat 
may flourish and not the ear, as the straw con- 
tains comparatively little of the same ingredients 
required for the grain ; and why good crops of 
wheat fall to the ground for want of proper 
strength in the straw to support the ears, as the 
straw requires a large amount of silica, with 
little lime, magnesia and phosphoric acid, and 
the grain a large amount of the latter substances. 
In a word, he should understand why some soils 
will grow good straw with small ears, and other 
soils large ears with little straw. 

The amount of inorganic food required for 



COMPOSITION OF PLANTS. 101 

plants may appear trifling, as shown by the an- 
alyses ; but its value is startling when we con- 
sider it in the crops removed from an acre of 
land. The following case, given by Professor 
Johnson, will illustrate this in a striking man- 
ner : 

In a four years' course of cropping, in which 
the crops gathered amounted per acre to — 

1st year, turnips, 20 tons bulbs, and 6^ tons tops ; 
2nd year, barley, 40 bushels, and 1 ton of straw ; 
3rd year, wheat, 25 bushels, and If tons of straw ; 
4th year, clover and rye grass, IJ tons each of straw ; 

the quantity of inorganic matter carried off in 
the four crops, supposing none to be consumed 
on the land, is a follows : 

Silica 356 lbs. 

Phosphoric Acid 116 " 

Sulphuric Acid , 108 " 

Lime 193 " 

Magnesia 55 " 

Oxide of Iron 15 " 

Potash 317 " 

Soda 54 '' 

Chlorine 70 " 

Total 1284 lbs. 

Now, if the entire produce be carried from the 
land, and no manures be applied in the meantime, 
it will be necessarv, to restore the land to its 
oriojinal condition, to add to each acre : 



102 AMERICAN MANURES. 

Boned ast 552 lbs. 

Epsom Salts 326 " 

DryPearlAsh 465 •' 

Quicklime 70 " 

Common Salt 116 " 

Total 1529 lbs. 

The constant removal of such large quantities 
of the inorganic food of plants must, in time, ex- 
haust a soil and render it barren, unless restored 
by a judicious system of manuring. The soluble 
salts, such as potash and soda, are also liable to 
leach through to the subsoil, and also to be 
washed away by rains. In general, however, all 
fertile soils contain a good store of the inorganic 
food of plants, so that the deterioration is often 
a slow process. In rare instances, a century 
may elapse before the change prove such as to 
make a sensible diminution in the rental value. 
Such slow changes are seldom recorded. Hence 
the practical man is occasionally led to despise 
the clearest theoretical principles, because he 
has not happened to see them verified in his own 
limited experience; as well as to neglect the 
suggestions and wise precautions which these 
principles lay before him. Illustrations of this 
sure, though slow decay, may be met with in 
the agricultural history of almost every country ; 
but in none more strikingly than in the old slave 
States, Maryland, Virginia, North and South 



EFFECTS OF CEOPPING. 103 

Carolina — once rich and fertile. By a long con- 
tinued system of forced and exhausting culture, 
these lands have become unproductive, and vast 
tracts have been abandoned to hopeless sterility. 
Such lands it is possible to reclaim ; but at what 
an expense of time, labor, manure, and skilful 
management? It is to be hoped that the new 
States will not thus sacrifice their future power 
and prospects to present and temporary wealth; 
that these fine lands, which now yield immense 
successive crops of Indian corn and wheat, with- 
out intermission and without manure, will not be 
cropped till their strength and substance is gone; 
but that a better conducted and more skilful 
husbandry may be adopted, which will ensure 
unimpaired fertility to these naturally rich and 
productive soils. 

Another instance of exhaustion may be seen 
in the West India sugar plantations. The cane, 
after having had its saccharine juice pressed out 
at the mill, serves as fuel for boiling down the 
syrup. The ash thus produced is rich in the 
mineral ingredients necessary to the prosperity 
of the plant. The neglect to return this valua- 
ble ash to the soil has not only occasioned a 
large importation of foreign manures, but also a 
serious deterioration of the soil. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS, SHOWING 
THE NATURAL SOURCES OF THE ELEMENTS AS 
CONTAINED IN PLANTS. 

An accurate knowledge of the constituents of 
soils is equally important to the farmer and planter 
as a knowledge of the composition of differ- 
ent crops, and of the materials at his command 
to produce them. Notwithstanding the im- 
portance of this knowledge, the chemical com- 
position of the land is rarely considered in the 
selection and purchase of a farm ; the fact that 
it produces crops, the location, convenience to 
markets, and the money value of the improve- 
ments, are the principal considerations. If the 
land has hitherto produced good crops, it is 
taken as a guarantee that it will continue to do 
so ; the soil is not examined, to see how far the 
stores of organic and mineral matter necessary 
to fertility have been exhausted. 

It requires but a superficial examination of this 
subject, to demonstrate that lands should have a 
commercial value, other things being equal, in pro- 
portion to the quantity and condition of the valu- 
able constituents of plants contained in an acre. 
104 



COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 105 

There are virgin soils that now raise hirge crops, 
but which will be soon exhausted, as their fertil- 
izing ingredients are small in amount, though in 
an active soluble state. Other soils, probably less 
productive, contain an almost unlimited supply 
of fertilizing ingredients, which are being gradu- 
ally liberated and given in soluble form to supply 
the wants of vegetation ; the former may become 
sterile in less than twenty years, the latter be 
productive for centuries. The facts just stated 
show the imjoortance of having soils analyzed, 
so that the farmer may know the amount of 
fertilizing substances he has on hand. This 
would be analogous to taking an account of stock 
by the merchant or manufacturer, only it need 
not be done so often. After once acquiring this 
knowledge, the farmer may easily estimate the 
amount of various substances removed by 
different crops, as well as what he has added in 
the shape of manures, and so arrive at a know- 
ledge of the true condition and real value of his 
lands. Millions of dollars are expended annually 
by farmers in substances not needed, solely from 
the fj-ict that they do not know what they 
already possess or need, nor the constituents of 
what they purchase. 

To illustrate this matter fully, we give analyses 
of some fertile and sterile soils ; and as it has 
been shown that all crops require silica, plios- 



106 AMERICAN MANURES. 

phoric acid, sulphuric acid, lime, magnesia, 
oxide of iron, potash, soda, chlorine, oxygen, 
hydrogen, and nitrogen, with a certain amount 
of decaying vegetable matter, the farmer can 
see why the soils given as fertile are so, and 
why the others are sterile. As a key to the 
amounts of the different substances contained in 
the soil of an acre of land, the farmer should 
know that every inch in depth of an acre of 
average soils, weighs about one hundred tons; 
hence a soil ten inches deep would weigh just 
one thousand tons. 

The following is an analysis of a very fertile 
soil, in the vicinity of the Zuyder Zee, in Holland, 
as given by the celebrated chemist Mulder. 

Insoluble sand with Alumina 57*646 

Soluble Silica 2-340 

Alumina, soluble 1*830 

Peroxide of Iron 9*039 

Protoxide of Iron 0-350 

Lime 4*092 

Magnesia 0'130 

Potash 1*026 

Soda 1*972 

Ammonia .• 0*060 

Phosphoric Acid 0*466 

Sulphuric Acid 0*896 

Carbonic Acid 6*085 

Chlorine 1*240 

Humus, or mould, vegetable re- \ 

mains and water chemically com- V 12*000 

bined J 

Loss 0*828 

Total 100-000 



FERTILE SOIL. 1()7 

This is a most remarkably rich soil, and few 
in the world can compare with it in furnishing 
the raw material for producing bread and meat. 
The farmer can see at a glance, that it contains 
every substance necessary for the growth of 
plants. As it would be interesting to know how 
much of each of the elements is contained on an 
acre of the above-mentioned soil, assuming the 
soil to be ten inches deep, and hence weighing 
one thousand tons, we give the result of the 
calculation, as follows : 

Silica and Alumina 57G0 tons. 

Soluble Silica 23-0 " 

Soluble Alumina 18-0 " 

Peroxide of Iron 90-0 " 

Protoxide of Iron 3-5 " 

Lime 40-0 " 

Magnesia 1-8 " 

Potash 10-0 " 

Soda 19-0 " 

Ammonia ■ 1200'0 lbs. 

Phosphoric Acid 4-5 tons. 

Sulphuric Acid 9*0 " 

Carbonic Acid 61'0 " 

Chlorine 12-5 " 

Yegetable remains and water 83-0 " 

The commercial value of these quantities of 
fertilizing elements can easily be estimated. 
The reader will notice that the amount of lime 
is four per cent., or forty tons to the acre. Allow- 
ing that 200 lbs. may be washed out and ap- 
propriated yearlj^ by growing crops, it would 



108 ' AMERICAN MANURES. 

last four hundred years; although the soil 
would cease to be fertile long before the last 
particle of lime was removed. The supply of 
magnesia is small in proportion to the other sub- 
stances, and as most crops require more magnesia 
than lime, this compound would be the first ex- 
hausted in this soil. It will also be seen that 
there are four and a half tons, or 9000 lbs. of 
phosphoric acid. Supposing this to be in the 
shape of bone phosphate of lime, or associated 
with other bases in an insoluble form, and worth 
four cents a pound, we have three hundred and 
sixty dollars as the value of that article alone. 

It is very probable that this soil has been 
cropped over a thousand years, and still contains 
within itself sufficient of every fertilizing sub- 
stance to last at least two hundred years or 
more. Soils containing only a tenth in quantity 
of these necessary elements may be equally 
fertile, as only a given quantity can be assimi- 
lated by each yearly crop, but the difference in 
quantity should be an element in determining 
the commercial value of the land. The time 
must come, and is not very distant, when the 
price of lands will be rated by their composition, 
and not merely their present capacity for raising 
crops. 

The following is an analysis of a remarkably 
sterile soil : 



STERILE SOIL. 109 

Silica, with coarse Silicious Sand 95-843 

Alumina 0-GOO 

Protoxide and Peroxide of Iron 1-800 

Lime in combination with Silica 0038 

Magnesia 0-0()G 

Potash and Soda 0-005 

Phosphate of Iron 0-198 

Sulphuric xicid 0-002 

Chlorine 0-OOG 

Humus, Carbonic Acid and Water. . . . 1*502 

Total 100-000 

The poverty of this soil is apparent from the 
small quantity of lime, magnesia, potash and 
phosphoric acid found in it. The addition of 
marl was found to have a marked effect upon it. 

The following is the analysis of a soil that was 
supposed to be very barren, but which, after the 
application of land plaster or gypsum, produced 
large crops of red clover, peas, beans, etc. The 
surface is a fine-grained loamy soil. (A) is the 
analysis of the surface, (B) of the subsoil ; 100 
parts of each contained : 

(A) (B) 

Silica, witli Silicious Sand 90-120 90-324 

Alumina , 2*106 2-262 

Peroxide and Protoxide of Iron.. 3-951 2-914 

Peroxide of Manganese 0-950 2-960 

Lime 0*539 0-532 

Phosphoric Acid 0*367 0*122 

Magnesia, with Silicate of Potash. 0*150 0*340 

Potash 0067 0*304 

Soda 0-010 trace. 

Sulphuric Acid trace. 0-010 

Chlorine 0-100 0*004 

Humus and decaying veg. matter.. 0*900 

Loss 0*140 0*228 

Total 100-000 100-000 



110 AMERICAN MANURES. 

The reader can see at a glance tlie lack of sul- 
phuric acid in the above soil. This is the 
reason that the application of plaster had such a 
beneficial effect. Every other element of fertil- 
ity was present, but without sulphuric acid it 
was impossible for plants to come to maturity. 

Hundreds of analyses of different soils might 
be given, both fertile and barren, but they would 
only prove the one great fjict, that soils, to be 
properly adapted to the growth of plants, must 
contain every element that enters into their 
composition. Plants must have the necessary 
food to live on, the same as animals, as they 
cannot create an atom of any substance to sup- 
port themselves. Hence, when there is a ftilling 
off in the productiveness of a soil, the farmer 
should first ascertain what element is necessary 
to restore it, and then add that substance, in a 
de Quite quantity, because it is only a waste of 
money to apply what is not required. 

Such a course would lead to an economy both 
of the money of the farmer, and also of the ele- 
ments of fertility. How many farmers buy ex- 
pensive manufactured manures, when perhaps 
the very things they need lie wasting at their 
own doors. The application of lime, marl, 
muck, wood and even coal ashes, is sometimes 
attended with better results than the most ex- 
pensive phosphates. When these expensive 



CHARACTER OF SOILS. Ill 

manures are applied where something else is 
needed, the farmer loses the money invested, the 
labor of applying them, and oftentimes his erop, 
by not using the substanee really required. 

The bulk of all soils consists of sand and day. 
These are general terms, and have no reference 
to the chemical properties of the different parts, 
as all granulated bodies in soils are termed sand, 
and all tenacious substances easily pulverized 
are termed clay. 

Two specific terms are in use to denote the 
character of soils, viz : — alluvial and diluvial. 
Soils that have been washed from hills and 
mountains are termed alluvial, but if they can- 
not be traced to such a source, and are elevated 
plains, or the tops of hills and mountains, they 
are termed diluvial, and must be traced to the 
action of glaciers or the gradual disintegration of 
rocks by the action of the elements. 

A knowledge of the chemical composition of 
the rocks, from which the sand and clay are 
formed, will enable us to judge correctly of the 
kinds of minerals to be found in the soil ; and 
of their adaptability to the wants of agriculture ; 
hence, the study of these rocks is quite as im- 
portant as the study of the soil itself. 

The rocks essential to the formation of fertile 
soils, and from which they are usually produced, 
are Granite, Felspar, Limestone, Gypsum, 



112 AMERICAN MANURES. 

Phosphorite, Slate and Sandstone. The relative 
value of these rocks in soil formation can be 
seen when we examine the nature of their con- 
stituents. 

Granite beloiififs to the most ancient familv of 
rocks, which appear to have originally formed 
the basis of the solid structure of the globe. 
This miueral derives its name from its marked 
granuLar structure, and is a mixture, in variable 
proportions, of quartz, felspar, and mica. These 
grains vary considerably in size ; in some varie- 
ties, the crystals are in uniform small grains, 
while in other varieties the laminae of mica are 
some inches across. 

Quartz, which forms the transjoarent grains 
m the granite, consists simply of silica (silicic 
acid). 

Felspar, the dull cream-colored opaque grains 
in granite, generally contains silica, alumina, 
potash, soda and lime. 

Mica, so named from the glittering scales 
which it forms in the rock, is a compound of 
silica, alumina and potash ; but in some varieties 
the alumina is displaced by the peroxide or rust 
of iron, and the potash by magnesia. 

By the long continued action of the atmos- 
phere in connection with rain, the granite rock 
is gradually crumbled down and disintegrated, 
an effect due to both mechanical and chemical 



FELSPAR. 113 

causes. Mechanically, the rock is continually 
worn by strong winds loaded with minute par- 
ticles of sand; and by the freezing of water 
within its minute pores, small particles are split 
off by the expansion attending such congelation. 
Chemically, the action of rain water containing 
carbonic acid, would remove the potash from the 
felspar and mica, in the form of carbonate of 
potash, which removal, breaking the bond of 
connection between the different particles or 
grains, the quartz and silicate of alumina, on 
combining with a certain amount of water, 
would form clay. Every hundred pounds of 
granite yield about one pound of potash, which 
is the most valuable part of the rock for the 
purposes of vegetation. 

A cubic foot of pure felspar is sufficient to 
supply half an acre of growing oak trees with 
the necessary potash required, for ^ve years, if 
it was present in a soluble form. Each 100 lbs. 
of this pure felspar contains 16*17 lbs. of pot- 
ash, equal to 24 '52 lbs. of carbonate of potash, 
or, 26'44 lbs. of the muriate. 

Still this potash in felspar requires a long 
time to become soluble when only acted on by 
atmospheric agencies. 

The most important mineral ingredient of fer- 
tile soils is lime, in its different compounds of 



114 AMERICAN MANURES. 

carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime (lime and 
sulphuric acid), and phosphate of lime. 

Gabon ate of Lime (common limestone) is the 
chief constituent of the shells of fishes and egg 
shells ; corals also consist of carbonate of lime, 
derived from the skeletons of innumerable min- 
ute insects. 

The origin of the common limestones is very 
remarkable. They are built up from deposits 
of the remains of shell-fish and coral insects, 
which lived in ancient seas, and which having 
been raised above the surface by submarine 
forces, have hardened into a rock by the slow 
infiltration of water holding' carbonate of lime 
in solution, or by the rapid and more powerful 
effect of volcanic heat. 

There are few limestones, in which the shells 
and corals cannot yet be seen in form, more or 
less perfect. They are not found in the purest 
and most crystalline marbles, because these 
have clearly been subjected to the action of heat 
with great pressure, which has obliterated the 
forms. 

Sulphate of Lime, or Gypsum, is an important 
ingredient of fertile soils, as it furnishes two 
elements necessary to plants. In some localities, 
gypsum is found in immense beds or rocks, some- 
what similar in appearance to limestone. 

It is very generally distributed in small quan- 



SANDSTONES. 115 

titles in all soils. Most spring and river waters 
contain it, and in hard waters it is often abund- 
ant, rendering them unfit for washing and culi- 
nary purposes. 

Phosphorite is a mineral phosphate of lime. 
The presence of phosphoric acid in all cultivated 
soils may be traced to this substance. Without 
it no cultivated plants can come to perfection. 
The source of this substance in soils must be 
from the many generations of animals that have 
lived on the earth, and whose bones have be- 
come scattered and mixed with the soil. It is 
also found in the ancient unstratified rocks, such 
as the apatites of Canada and Northern New 
York, the phosphatic guano beds of South Caro 
lina, and other places. Many of these rocks 
contain a larger amount of phosphoric acid than 
the same weight of bones. As these rocks slow- 
ly crumble down in the soil; the phosphates, if 
they become soluble, are taken up by plants. 

Sandstones are a great source of the inorganic 
materials in soils. They are of various formations, 
and their composition is not at all arbitrary; 
alumina, silica, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, 
and other substances, are found in various 
proportions in the different varieties. The co- 
hesion of the particles is sometimes caused by a 
sort of semi-fusion, as in the common grit or 
burr stones, while in other varieties the cohesion 



116 AMERICAN MANURES. 

is effected by the infiltration of some substance 
in solution. These are the freestones, red-sand- 
stones, etc. Most sandstones are easily dis- 
integrated by the elements, and form soils 
rapidly, the value of which is governed by the 
constituent elements of the stone. 

Soils are named from the relative projDortions 
of their constituents. One hundred parts of dry 
ordinary soil, containing only ten of clay, would 
be termed a sandy soil. If it contained from 
ten to thirty or forty parts of clay, it would be 
d sandy loam ; if from forty to seventy parts of 
clay, it would be a loamy soil ; from seventy to 
eighty-five of clay, a clay loam ; from eighty-five 
to ninety of clay, a strong clay, fit for making 
bricks ; if it contains no sand it would be pure 
agricultural clay, or pipe-clay. If a soil contains 
more than ^yq per cent, of lime, it is termed a 
marly soil ; if more than twenty per cent., a 
calcareous soil. The rust of iron forms two or 
three per cent, of most sandy soils, and in red 
soils much more. 

Farmers must have noticed that some soils 
assume a darker color or deeper red, under 
cultivation. These soils contain a large amount 
of the first oxide of iron, which is injurious to 
vegetation. The frequent exposure of such soils 
to the oxygen of the atmosphere, changes this 
fi.-st oxide to the ^^eroxide, as previously stated. 



MOULD. 117 

The foregoing account of the sources of in- 
organic substances in soils, shows that the soil 
acquires from rocks alumina, silica or sand, 
pliosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, lime, magnesia, 
oxide of iron, potash, soda; all being indispensable 
ingredients for the growth of plants. These sub- 
stances are all termed mineral or iiiorganic. 

Mould will now be considered. It is popu- 
larly supposed to be the organic portion of soils. 
If the leaves that fall from the trees, and the 
vegetation that dies yearly on the approach of 
winter, did not rot or decay, or become resolved 
into their original elements, the accumulation 
would interfere with the subsequent growth of 
plants. The decomposition of organic remains 
is governed by fixed laws. All plants after they 
die undergo two processes of decomposition ; first, 
fermentation, then putrefaction or decay. These 
changes are somewhat analogous to those pro- 
duced by a smouldering fire, and the product 
of this decay is very appropriately termed mould. 
This process of decay or mouldering is the im- 
perceptible union of the oxygen of the air with 
the carbon of the plant ; but it proceeds so slowly 
that it produces only in a very slight degree the 
effects of ordinary combustion, that is light and 
heat; .still the results are the same, with the ex- 
ception that it is not carried to the same extent. 

The complete burning of vegetation leaves 



118 AMERICAN MANURES. 

nothing but the mineral or inorganic elements 
in the form of ash; the carbon, oxj^gen, hydrogen, 
and nitrogen, passing off in a gaseous form ; on the 
contrary, the slow combustion that takes place 
under the ordinary processes of decay, is limited 
by the small amount of oxygen that can come 
in contact with the carbon. A part of this 
oxygen is furnished by the decomposition of the 
water present ; the oxygen thus liberated unites 
with the carbon to form carbonic acid, and the 
hydrogen unites with nitrogen to form ammonia. 
Inasmuch as the decomposed remains of all 
the parts of any plant contain all the inorganic, 
with a portion of the organic elements originally 
contained in it, these remains would furnish a 
most efficient manure for the production of other 
plants of the same species. But if we desire to 
grow another kind of plant, requiring a larger 
amount of one or more of the elements, the de- 
ficiency must be supplied, or, if a part of the 
plants be removed from the soil, the elements 
contained in that part must be renewed by a 
manure. Wheat serves as an example. The 
grain, which contains the largest amount of the 
most valuable elements of fertility, is removed ; 
and even should all the straw be returned to the 
soil in a decomposed state, it would evidently 
lack the amount of the elements contained in the 
grain. Hence the necessity of applying, in a 



ASSIMILATION OF CARBON. 119 

cheaper form, the substances that will furnish 
the different elements removed in the grain is 
apparent. 

Humus is the technical term used to designate 
the mould or brown earthy pari of soils. As this 
substance has partially lost the power of as- 
similating oxygen, and giving forth carbonic 
acid gas, it is almost a fixed substance. Its 
special office is that of a mechanical medium for 
the absorption and retention of heat, moisture, 
and fertilizing gases ; also that of a mechanical 
support to the structure of the plant. 

The hulk or mass of vegetation is not fur- 
nished by the soil. Generally the largest part 
of the mass is water or its elements; a large part 
also is carbon. Many ingenious experiments 
have been made to determine the source of car- 
bon in vegetation. They have resulted in estab- 
lishing the fact that it is furnished almost en- 
tirely, if not wholly, by the carbonic acid in the 
atmosphere and soil. It is true that humic acid 
— a compound of humus and oxygen, containing 
58 per cent, of carbon — will form soluble com- 
pounds with potash, soda and lime. Both Mal- 
aguti and Sprengel say that 1 lb. of lime com- 
bines with 12 lbs. of humic acid, and thus every 
pound of lime thus combined might be the ve- 
hicle to furnish 7 lbs. of carbon to the plant 
But as only 15 J lbs. of lime enter into the com- 



120 AMERICAN MANURES. 



1 



position of 25 bushels of wheat, only 107 lbs. of 
carbon could possibly be furnished in this way. 
As there are 2377 lbs. of carbon in 25 bushek 
of wheat and the straw, not the one-twentieth 
part required could be thus supplied. We will 
ascertain what amount could be supplied by the 
agency of rain water. The rain-fall from the 
first of April to the first of October — the time 
during which plants are coming to maturity — is 
on an average about 1,000,000 lbs. to an acre. 
Now, experiments have demonstrated that 1,000,- 
000 lbs. will render soluble only 10 lbs. of car- 
bon ; so that only 10 lbs. could be thus furnished, 
even if every pound of the water is taken up by 
the roots, which is far from being the case. The 
trees of the forest and the grass of the meadow 
rarely receive any carbon in the shape of ma- 
nure ; and yet there is no lack of it, though car- 
bon is taken away every year in the form of 
wood and hay. From all this we conclude that 
manures are not needed to furnish carbon, and 
that the atmosphere is capable of furnishing all 
that vegetation requires. 

Immense quantities of carbonic acid are con- 
stantly supplied to the atmosphere by our fires 
and furnaces, by fermentation and the decay of 
animal and vegetable substances, as well as by 
the respiration of men and animals. Is it not 
wonderful that this carbonic acid, so fatal to ani- 



PHYSICAL DEFECTS IN SOILS. 121 

mals, though largely produced by them, is so ne- 
cessary to plants that they may almost be said 
to subsist upon it ; absorbing it from the air, and 
decomposing it by their leaves in the sunshine, 
in such a manner as to retain the carbon and 
liberate the oxygen, which thus becomes fitted 
for the purposes of combustion and respiration. 
Were it not for the absorption of carbonic acid 
by plants, the air would become unfit for respir- 
ation, and all animal life would perish from the 
face of the earth. 

Since carbonic acid is so important as food for 
vegetables, it is interesting to know how much 
of it is available in the atmosphere — in other 
words, to estimate the stoch on hand. The 
amount in weight is nearly the one-thousandth 
part of the weight of the atmosphere, and accor- 
ding to the calculation of Liebig, the amount of 
carbon contained is more than 3081 billions of 
pounds — a weight exceeding that of all the veg- 
etation and all the strata of mineral and brown 
soil on the face of the earth. Nor has this vast 
amount been perceptibly lessened since the me- 
thod of estimating its amount was discovered, 
because it is being constantly supplied from the 
sources previously stated, as fast as it is appro- 
priated by vegetation. 

The physical condition of soils, and their ca- 
pacity for retaining heat and moisture, is a sub- 



122 AMERICAN MANURES. 

ject too often neglected in this country. Some 
rich soils fail to produce good crops, from a defi- 
ciency in these properties. The addition of lime, 
marl, clay, and swamp-muck, will greatly im- 
prove such soils. Should there be an excess of 
moisture, as in low swampy land, surface appli- 
cations cannot benefit it much, and the farmer 
must resort to drainage to remove the difficulty. 
These are important considerations, and are de- 
serving of a more extended notice than we can 
give them in this book. 

Sandy soils have been greatly benefited by 
the addition of even small amounts of clay, thus 
correcting their porosity and leaching tendency, 
and verifying the truth of the old saying, that 

" Clay upon sand 
Makes very good land." 

On the contrary, very little benefit results from 
the application of sand to heavy tenacious soils, 
as the amount required to produce any real 
change is so large, that the farmer could not pos- 
sibly be repaid for his labor ; or, as expressed in 
the following equally terse saying, 

" Sand upon clay 
Is money thrown away," 



CHAPTER V. 

THE MONEY VALUE OF FERTILIZERS, CALCULATED 
FROM THE MARKET VALUE OF THE RAW MATERI- 
ALS AND COST OF MANUFACTURING ; WITH . GEN- 
ERAL REMARKS ON THE BUSINESS. 

This book, being intended to guard the interest 
of the farmer, and expose the frauds practised 
by unscrupulous manufacturers and dealers in 
commercial fertilizers, the first step towards 
effecting this much desired object is, to show the 
value of those essential elements of fertility, the 
quantity and condition of which, in fertilizers, 
should properly fix their price. 

The prices of different commercial fertilizers 
range from $30 to $75 per ton. These various 
prices are erroneously supposed to represent their 
value, estimated from the cost of the raw mate- 
rial, cost of manufacturing, and a fair margin of 
profit. There has been but little fluctuation in 
the prices of these fertilizers. It has made no 
difference whether wheat was worth $2.50 or 
$1.50 per bushel, they have still maintained the 
same prices. But as this manufactured article 

^ 123 



124 AMERICAN MANURES. 

may properly be regarded as a raw material for 
the production of commodities that have a flue 
tuating price, regulated by the general laws of 
demand and supply, the price of this raw mate- 
rial should be regulated by the price of the pro- 
ducts of the farm. A little consideration will 
convince any one of the justness of this course. 
The price of labor naturally fluctuates with the 
price of bread ; at one time it was customary in 
this country to consider a bushel of wheat, or its 
equivalent in money, a fair price for a day's labor. 
As the price of the other necessaries of life fluc- 
tuates in about the same proportion as farm pro- 
duce, the condition of the laborer was unchanged 
by any rise or fall in the price of wheat. Al- 
though this rule is not strictly followed at the 
present time, still the price of labor is regulated, 
in a great degree, by the varying prices of bread. 
Now, as there are unlimited quantities of the 
raw" material required for the manufacture of 
fertilizers, their price when manufactured should 
be regulated by the cost of the labor required to 
procure and manufacture them. The earth con- 
tains vast stores of the elements of fertility ; all 
that is needed is labor and capital to develop 
and utilize them. And as this business is iden- 
tical with other mining and manufacturing en- 
terprises, the parties engaged in it should be sat- 
isfied with legitimate profits. But as those 



MINERAL PHOSPHATES. 125 

enorao-ed in tlie mining' of these raw materials for 
fertilizers are rarely manufacturers, justice de- 
mands that we should state that the prices 
demanded for them barely covers the cost of pro- 
duction, and that the producers are in no manner 
benefited by the exorbitant prices realized by the 
manufacturers. The recent discoveries of phos- 
phatic guanos in various places have led to a 
sharp competition between the parties engaged 
in mining this raw material. This competition 
is a great advantage to the manufacturers, and 
annually puts a large amount of money into 
their pockets ; and besides, they are the only 
parties benefited, as they charge just as much 
for a superphosphate of lime manufactured from 
Charleston guano, that costs them from eight to 
twelve dollars a ton, as they formerly charged for 
the same article manufactured from bones, cost- 
ing from twenty to thirty dollars a ton. 

As yet, our fiirmers have derived no benefit 
from these valuable discoveries of mineral 
guanos, which, if properly applied, will restore 
our impoverished lands to their virgin richness 
and fertility. But the interests of the public 
imperatively demand a change. The farmer 
need not pay manufacturers exorbitant prices 
for their manures. He should and can procure 
the crude guanos from the miners and dealers ; 
the grinding and subsequent preparation is easily 



126 AMERICAN MANURES. 

performed. Thus, a saving of nearly fifty per 
cent, of the money now paid to these manufac- 
turers might be effected. The application of a 
manufactured manure is very often considered 
an experiment by farmers ; they use it doubt- 
ingly, not expecting to be benefited in propor- 
tion to the amount invested. This lack of 
confidence is caused by the high prices charged, 
and the suspected immense profits of the manu- 
facturers. For these reasons many who really 
need fertilizers, and who would be benefited by 
their use, even as they are now made, and at 
their present exorbitant prices, look on them 
with distrust and try to get along without them. 
It requires no stretch of fancy to picture the 
condition of this country, which has not unaptly 
been termed the granary of the world, if those 
needed fertilizers were manufactured honestly, 
and fair prices asked, so as to make them popu- 
lar with all the farming community. So far 
their use has been comparatively confined to a 
few, and hence commercial fertilizers have not 
that effect on the prosperity and productiveness 
of the country they should have. Besides, if a 
good article had been generally made, and sold at 
a fair price, the amount used would be enormous, 
and the aggregate amount of money made by the 
manufacturers much greater than it is 3 and the far- 
mer, at the same time, would have been corres- 



SMALL AMOUNTS REQUIRED. 127 

pondingly benefited. But in tlieir haste to get rich 
by exorbitant profits, these manufacturers have 
displayed the wisdom of tlie old woman of the 
fable, who '' killed the goose tliat laid the golden 
eggsr 

The reader has been shown that the elements 
of fertility supposed to be furnished by these 
manures, form but a small poi'tion of the produce 
of an acre. He has been shown that 28 lbs. of 
phosphoric acid, 40 lbs. of potash, and 58 lbs. of 
ammonia, are the amounts of these substances 
needed to produce 25 bushels of wheat with the 
straw, and if none of these substances were con- 
tained in the soil, the above amounts must be 
applied in some shape to insure the raising of 
such a crop. If the reader will turn to the Tables 
of Analyses in Chapter YIL, he will there see 
that even 800 lbs. of some of the most celebrated 
manures of these manufactures, do not contain a 
sufficient amount of the above substances in 
proper condition. 

But would it pay the farmer to apply 800 
lbs. of a manure that costs $50 per ton, to 
raise 25 bushels of wheat? Certainly not; 800 
lbs. would cost $20, and after paying for seed 
and labor, and allowing interest on the money 
invested in the land, his profit would be 
reduced to a very small amount — to nothing — 
or less than nothing; — he would be in debt. 



128 AMERICAN MANURES. 

Some farmers, being accustomed to think of man- 
ures as a bulky article, cainiot see that a large 
crop should be expected from the application of 
400 lbs. of so-called concentrated fertilizers to 
an acre ; and if it perchance happens, it excites 
their wonder. We intend to prove that the ap- 
plication of large bulks of manure is not necessary 
to the raising of large crops. A little of the sub- 
stance needed is better than a good deal of luhat 
is not needed. A system of intelligent manuring 
would greatly lessen the labor of its application, 
and save large sums of money expended in 
transporting what is worthless ; 400 lbs. is not 
required for an acre, if the manure is properly 
prepared. We will show conclusively that 1-00 
lbs. of bones can be made more valuable as a 
manure, than 400 lbs. of manv of the leadin«: 
fertilizers. But we regret to say that the 
farmers themselves encourage these impositions ; 
they want bulk and weight for their money, and 
overlook the quality of the article. The manu- 
facturers are accommodating, and they give it, 
i.e., a good deal (in hulk) for their money. There 
are severai manures in the market that have a 
good reputation for quality, and the manu- 
facturers of which have a fair reputation for 
honesty, and yet their manures will not yield 
10 lbs. in the 100 of the substances really 
needed, and in proper condition to benefit the 




DECEPTIONS OF MANUFACTURERS. 129 

growing crop. Na}-', some of them, not even 6 
lbs. to the 100, and are barely worth the price 
of the bags and transportation ; the good results 
that sometimes attend their use can only be ac- 
counted for by a favorite expression of a leading 
manufacturer of just such manures, well known 
to the writers, viz : ''l^atiive does a great deal 
for us/" Our farmers too often give these man- 
ures the credit for doing what is done by the 
ingredients contained in their soil; just as the 
patient oftentimes has far more faith in the 
medicine than the doctor, who generally trusts 
to nature and a strong constitution to effect a 
cure. How much better would it be to purchase 
the 6, 10 or 20 lbs. of the reallv valuable and 
only needed part of these dilute, milk-and-water 
fertilizers; and if it is desired, increase the bulk 
at home, thus saving the cost of bags and trans- 
portation ? 

These manufacturers are very careful to tell 
you how much soluble phosphoric acid, and how 
much insoluhle that will become soluble in the 
soil (they forget to say in ten to twenty years), 
and how much potash and ammonia their article 
contains, or more correctly speaking, shoidd con- 
tain ; but they are careful not to report the 
amount of water, salt cake, and land plaster that 
is mixed with it. Like the Pharisee, they 
loudly proclaim their good qualities, but the 



130 AMERICAN MANURES. 

much needed and appropriate invocation of the 
Pubhcan is never practised by them. 

The writers are fully cognizant of the fact, 
that some manufacturers have realized thousands 
of dollars yearly, by the sale of the water alone 
contained in their product; and that gas-lime, 
costing four cents a bushel, has been mixed with 
what was called superphosphate of lime, and sold 
for two to three cents per pound. In this case, 
it is difficult to tell whether most to condenni 
their consummate dishonesty, or pity their super- 
lative ignorance. It is almost beyond belief, 
that men in this enlightened age, should be so 
ignorant of the requirements of their business, as 
to spend large sums of money in the purchase of 
sulphuric acid to render phosphoric acid soluble, 
and also pay a high price for Peruvian Guano to 
ammoniate ; and then apply semi-caustic lime, 
thus sending the little soluble phosphoric acid 
produced back into its insoluhle state, and at the 
same time dissipating the ammonia, thus render- 
ins; the manure almost icorthless. The reader 
who has fully considered the theory of the manu- 
facture or preparation of superphosphate of lime, 
will readily see the pertinence' of the above 
remarks. 

During the past two or three ^^ears, the com- 
mon expressions of these manufacturers have 
been, " the day of large profits is past — the 



PRESENT CONDITION OF MANUFACTURERS. 131 

farmers are getting more careful and cautious in 
purchasing fertilizers — they must know what it 
contains before they buy." We shall show the 
reader the cost to the manufacturer, and real 
value to the farmer, of the so called improved 
Tnanures, manufactured to suit the increased 
caution of buyers, and causing, as the manu- 
facturers say, gYQ^iXy reduced profits. When we 
have done this, one can readily imagine Avhat 
the profits of this fertilizing business was, in the 
good old times of salt cake, land plaster, gas- 
lime, marl, and even coal ashes. The reader 
can see from the analyses of many of these im- 
proved manures, that the greedy appetite for 
extortionate gain manifested by manufacturers, 
has grown by what it fed on. 

But if this investigating and cautious spirit 
exhibited by the farmer has not materially 
benefited him, by inducing the manufacturers to 
make a better article, it has had one good effect, 
that of greatly reducing their sales ; thus proving 
that though fraud and deceit may flourish for a 
season, yet a day of reckoning loill come : " The 
mills of the gods grind slow, but exceeding fine." 
The present condition of some of these manu- 
facturers who, last winter, made large prepara- 
tions for heavy sales in the South, and increased 
sales in the Eastern and Middle States, this 
spring, and whose factories and storehouses are 



132 AMEHICAN MANURES. 

now groaning under the weight of the raw and 
manufactured material, that was expected ere 
this to have been sold, and the profits pocketed, 
should disarm the resentment of the heretofore 
cheated purchasers, and leave nothing more to 
be desired even by the most vindictive spirit. 

These wholesale Peter Funks have too long 
nnposed their bogus compounds upon a confiding 
community. We hope and believe that the 
information given in our book will have its 
effect, in depriving them of the opportunity for 
further wrong doing; and we may even hope 
against hope, that they themselves may be 
brought to a proper sense of their dishonesty. 
As for ourselves, we have only a common interest 
in performing a common duty ; for when a wrong 
is perpetrated on communities or the people at 
large, no private person has the right to cover 
up or condone the offence ; but it is the duty of 
all alike, to the full extent of their knowledge 
and ability, to aid in bringing the offenders to 
justice and punishment, and especially is it a 
duty in a case like this, which affects the most 
vital interests of all — the production of the neces- 
saries of life. And besides this, the deserved pre- 
judices that have been produced against the use 
of commercial fertilizers, if not intelligently 
directed, wdll undoubtedly prove a national 
calamity. 



A LESSON TO OUR FARMERS. 133 

Our agricultural reports, showing the average 
produce of an acre in the States, is quite a sorry 
comment on our boasted system of agriculture. 
What a waste of ill-requited labor ! What a 
return on the capital invested ! It is calculated 
that two-thirds of our population are engaged in 
cultivating the soil, and that three-fourths of the 
capital of the country is invested in farm lands, 
and the stock and implements of husbandry. It 
is of momentous national interest, that this vast 
amount of labor and capital should be adequately 
remunerated. How is this to be done ? The 
answer is plain : By an intelligent and economi- 
cal system of manuring. 

The reason why our lands do not produce as 
much as those of other countries, the following 
facts will fully explain : Last year, England, 
that does not contain a much larger area of cul- 
tivated land than the State of Pennsylvania^ im- 
ported, of 

Peruvian Guano 150-000 tons 

Nitrate of Soda 33-216 " 

Bones and Bone Ash 73-231 " 

Phosphatic Guano 100-000 " 

Total 356-447 tons. 

In addition to the above, there were large 
quantities of muriate of potash imported from 
Germany. If to this we add the large amounts 
of sulphate of ammonia produced at home, and 



134 AMERICAN MANURES. 

the immense amount of concentrated manures 
prepared from the bones, night soil, and other 
waste products of the kingdom, it will swell the 
grand total of commercial manures used by the 
farmers of England, to over 800,000 tons a year — 
a larger amount than is used in the whole 
United States of America. That the use of this 
large amount of the elements of fertility applied 
to the soil amply repays the farmer, we cannot 
question for a moment. We quote the following 
from the last year's report of a leading manufac- 
turer in England : 

" Most wonderful strides have been made 
within the past few years in the use of bone ma- 
terial for manurial purposes. Manure manufac- 
tories have sprung up in all parts of the country, 
where formerly they were unknown ; and not- 
withstanding that there is no decrease in the 
average importations of the past five years, the 
keen competition that exists among manufactur- 
ers for supplies of the raw material, has at length 
forced prices to the most extreme point which 
they have yet attained. Towards the close of 
last season, the utmost difficulty was experienced 
in getting supplies to meet the most moderate 
requirements, and the stocks of manufacturers 
were entirely cleared. The new season was 
ushered in with great excitement in the trade ; 
fears being generally entertained that the sup- 



VALUATION OF MANURES. 135 

plies would fall far short of the demand, and 
consequently a large amount of business was 
done at even higher prices than what prevailed 
before the close of last season. This advance 
has been fully maintained, and as there cannot 
be a doubt that the supplies will fall far short 
of the requirements of manufacturers, a further 
advance is imminent before the consumptive de- 
mand sets in." 

How different is the condition of our manufac- 
turers, whose factories are glutted with their old 
stock, notwithstanding the extraordinary induce- 
ments offered to purchasers. The reason of this 
state of things may be traced to two causes : 
First, The exorbitant prices asked ; Second, 
The inferior quality of the fertilizers. 

We shall now proceed to a discussion of the 
value of commercial manures, estimating from 
the amount and condition of the fertilizing sub- 
stances contained in them. Their value has 
commonly been estimated from the prices of the 
same substances in Peruvian Guano. Professor 
Way, in an article published in the Journal of 
the Royal Agricultural Society, England, says, 
that the money value of a ton of Peruvian Guano 
is $58.58 ; its ammonia being worth $46.95, the 
phosphate of lime $8.16, and the potash $1.12. 
He says that ammonia is worth 12 cents a pound 
for producing wheat at $1.25 a bushel. Bone- 



136 AMERICAN MANURES. 

phosphate of lime is worth li cent per pound, 
and potash 6i cents for agricultural purposes. 
This celebrated chemist has confined his calcu- 
lations to the amount of these materials as found 
in Peruvian Guano. But at this time, this is too 
limited a basis from which to estimate their 
value, as there are other sources from which 
these tliree substances can be procured ; and as 
respects phosphoric acid and potash, more 
cheaply than in Peruvian Guano. 

Professor Way has estimated 10 J cents per 
jDound as a fair price for soluble phosphoric acid ; 
Dr. Voelcker, of the Royal Agricultural College, 
of England, and Dr. Stoeckhardt, the distin- 
guished Saxon Agricultural Chemist, give it a 
value of 12 J cents per pound. These prices are 
deduced from the prices of the best commercial 
superphosphates. Dr. Johnson, in his essay on 
manures, in commenting on these prices, says : 
^^This, I believe, is considerably more than it is 
really worth, but is probably the lowest rate at 
which it can now be purchased." This remark 
would seem to imply an utter helplessness on 
his part to suggest any remedy for the prices 
demanded. We shall review these opinions re- 
specting the value of phosphoric acid. Dr. 
Yoelcker's and Dr. Stoeckhardt's mode of fixing 
the price of soluble phosphoric acid, from the 
amount of this substance contained in, and the 



VALUATION OF PHOSPIIORIG ACID. 137 

prices asked for, the best commercial superphos- 
phates, might do for Enghmd and Saxony, where 
manufacturers have done all they can to improve 
and perfect manures and superphosphates, and 
make as good an article as possible for the money. 
But to take such a standard to estimate the value 
of general American superphosphates, where an 
entirely different state of things prevails, would 
be simply ridiculous ; hence, we shall proceed to 
estimate from a different basis. 

At the present time the valuable materials 
used in the manufacture of commercial manures 
and superphosphate of lime, are Bones, Mineral 
Guanos or Phosphorite, Peruvian Guano, Crude 
Sulphate of Ammonia, Muriate and Sulphate of 
Potash. 

There are only three substances that serve as 
a basis for fixing the value of commercial man- 
ures. These are Phosphoric Acid, Ammonia 
and Potash. Most of the other substances used, 
such as Salt Cake, Gypsum, etc., are a source 
of actual loss to the farmer, because he has to 
pay 21 cents or more per lb. for them when 
mixed with superphosphate of lime ; whereas, 
if he needs them, he can buy them unmixed for 
I of a cent per lb. : hence, every pound of them 
in the superphosphate, involves a loss of at 
least II cent. They are added by the manu- 
facturer only to give bulk and increase hin 



138 AMERICAN MANURES. 

profits. As to organic substances, such as blood, 
fish scraps, horns, hah^, etc., m these manures, 
they have a value proportioned to the amount 
of nitrogen or ammonia contained in them ; but 
as they are usually mixed with a considerable 
amount of water and other ingredients, of no 
value, that costs the buyer as much as the 
nitrogen or ammonia is worth, they may be left 
out of the estimate ; thus leaving only phos- 
phoric acid, ammonia and potash as a basis of 
value. We shall examine them in the following 
order : Phosphoric Acid — insoluble and soluble ; 
Ammonia — actual and potential ; Potash — 
the Muriate and Sulphate. 

Insoluble Phosphoric Acid, or Bone Phos- 
phate of Lime, enters largely into the composi- 
tion of bones, as the following analysis of cattle 
bones, in their natural dry state, will show. 

Gelatin 30*58 lbs. contain nitrogen 5-00 lbs. 

Phosphate of Lime... 58-30 " " Phosphoric Acid 26-71 " 

Carbonate of Lime.... 7-07 " 

Fluoride of Calcium.. 1-96 " 

Phosphate of Mag.... 2-09 " " " " 1-13" 



100-00 lbs. Total Phosphoric Acid 27-84 lbs. 

A ton of such bones contains 556 lbs. of phos- 
phoric acid, and 100 lbs. of nitrogen. If this 
insoluble phosphoric acid be estimated at 4 J cents 
per lb., and the nitrogen at 15 cents, we have 
SlO.02 a^^ the real value of these bones. Such 



SOURCES OF PHOSPHORIC ACID. 139 

bones usually cost, in their rough state, from $20 
to $25 per ton ; the grinding costs about $5. 
The above value of $40.02 given to a ton of 
ground bones, allows a profit of from $10 to $15 
per ton to the manufacturers. 

There are only two available sources of phos- 
phoric acid: First, the bones of animals; Second, 
mineral guanos, known as Phosphorite, Apatite, 
and Coprolites. The use of bones as a source 
of phosphoric acid is limited; the trouble and 
expense of collecting them, and the general 
ignorance of their value, will at all times render 
them an uncertain supply, as raw material for 
the manufacture of fertilizers. But with the 
second source — mineral phosphates — the case is 
different. There seems to be scarcely any limit 
to the amount. 

As a raw material for the manufacture of 
sol uhle jjJiosjjJioiHc acid or superphosphate of lime, 
it is very valuable. If it is as free from the car- 
bonates of lime and magnesia, and of other foreign 
matter, as bones are, equal amounts of sulphuric 
acid will liberate the same amount of soluble phos- 
phoric acid from it, as from bones. Hence, other 
things being equal, this mineral guano is fully 
as valuable as bones for preparing soluble phos- 
phates. As before remarked, there is scarcely 
any limit to the supply of these mineral phos- 
phates. The largest known deposit on this 

10 



140 AMERICAN MANURES. 

continent, and perhaps in the world, is near 
Charleston, in South Carolina. The country is 
indebted to Dr. N. A. Pratt, of that city, for 
discovering the value, and aiding in the develop- 
ment of this great source of national wealth. 
He says, in his report on this subject : " This bed 
has long been known in the history of the geolo- 
gy of South Carolina, as the ' Fish bed of the 
Charleston Basin,' on account of the abundant 
remains of marine animals found in it — Profes- 
sor Holmes, of Charleston, having not less than 
60,000 sharks' teeth alone, some of them of 
enormous size, weighing from two to two and a 
half pounds each. The bed outcrops on the banks 
of the Ashley, Cooper, Stono, Edisto, Ashepoo, 
and Combahee rivers ; but is developed most 
richly and heavily on the former, and has been 
found inland forty or fifty miles. Near the 
Ashley river, it paves the public highwaj^s for 
miles ; it seriously impedes and obstructs the 
cultivation of the land, affording scarcely soil 
enough to hill up the cotton rows; and the 
phosphates have for years past been thrown into 
piles on the lawns and into the causeways over 
ravines, to get them out of the reach of the 
plows. It underlies many square miles of sur- 
face continuously, at a depth ranging from six 
inches to twelve or more feet, and in such quanti- 
ties, that from five hundred to a thousand tons 



DR. pratt's report. 141 

underlie each acre. In fact, it seems there are 
no rocks in this section which are not phos- 
phates. 

" The area of this bed, containing phosphates 
of good quahty and in workable quantity, so far 
as known and examined by the writer in person, 
is not less than 40 to 50 square miles, though, 
from samples I have examined from beyond these 
limits, I am led to believe that the rock will be 
found of good or indiiferent quality, and in 
greater or less quantity, over an area of several 
hundred square miles. When of inferior quality, 
they contain more sand, carbonate of lime, oxide 
of iron, and phosphate of iron and alumina, and 
proportionately less pure phosphate of lime." 

As the amount of this material is so large, it 
will doubtless be the chief source of supply for 
many years to come, and there will probably be 
little variation in its price ; and as there are no 
drawbacks or checks to the mining and economi- 
cal transportation of it to all parts of the Atlantic 
coast, we will estimate the value of insoluble 
phosphoric acid from it. We give the following 
table from Dr. Pratt's interesting pamphlet on 
the " History of the Discovery and Development 
of the Native Bone Phosphates of the Charleston 
Basin," giving analyses of different samples of 
this guano, and of some other leading commercial 
guanos, for comparison. 



142 



AMERICAN MANURES. 







Phosphate 
of L/ime. 


g i 

o ^ 


Carb. Lime 
and Magnesia 


Organic 
Matter. 




South Carolina, 


No. 1 


34-40 








29-32 


(( 


'' 2 


55-52 


1-50 


10-33 


6-50 


10-31 


(< 


" 3 


63-30 


1-32 


8-20 




901 


« 


'' 4 


68-03 


5-02 


8-03 


7-50 


9-91 


« 


" 5 


66-36 


3-01 






11-70 


t( 


'' 6 


61-93 


1-04 


11-21 






« 


a 7 


64-07 


•84 


11-00 






<( 


'' 8 


69-00 










(< 


'' 9 


59-07 


•65 


5-68 






« 


" 10 


49-35 


1-84 


25-70 






(< 


'> 11 


49-87 


•86 


4-73 






a 


" 12 


50-07 


•69 


10-14 






Navassa Gnano, 




49-12 


12-00 








Swan Island Guano, 
mean of two analya 


es . 


53-08 


12-33 




20-60 


15-40 


Bolivian, 




53-20 


9-23 




18-24 


4-08 


Patagonian, 
Chilian, 




44-00 
31-00 


fphos. iron 
\ and alum'a 
[combined. 




18-30 
18-60 


35-60 
43-17 



The average amount of bone phosphate of 
Hme in the twelve analyses, is 57"58. The 
writers have been informed that the company 
who have control of this deposit have adopted 
the following tariff, viz : Twenty cents for each 
unit or per centage of bone phosphate contained 
in 100 lbs. represents the value of a ton. The 
average per centage by above Table is 57'58, 
which at 20 cents per unit would make the price 



COST OF THE RAW MATERIAL. 143 

of this quality of tlie article $11.51 per ton. 
Tiie reader can appreciate the justice and fair- 
ness of a business conducted on such an equitable 
basis ; and the farmer should refuse to purchase 
the manufactured article, until a similar honest 
arrangement for fixing its price is adopted by 
the manuflicturers. One ton of mineral phos- 
phate containing 57.58 per cent, of bone phos- 
phate of lime, contains 527 lbs. of phosphoric acid, 
costing 2.16 cents per lb. to the manufacturer, 
as delivered in its rough state. When ground, 
assuming it to be worth 4i cents per lb. (the 
price claimed), the following statement will show 
the actual cost and profits, if put up in bags and 
sold in that state : 

One ton of Mineral Phosphate ^H-^O 

Oartao-e, grinding and labor 5.00 

Bags.': ^-OQ 

Total cost $18.50 

This article in its ground state is sold for 
$25.00 per ton to farmers, at a profit of $6.50 per 
ton. But its use, as we will now show, gives no 
return for the money expended. 

Manures, no matter what they contain, are 
valuable only in proportion to the solubility of 
their fertilizing constituents. There is absolutely 
no proof that this mineral phosphate, which has 
been exposed to the action of water for thousands 
of years, has parted with any of its phosphoric 



114 AMERICAN MANURES. 

acid tlirougli this agency. On the contrary, it is 
more rich in phosphoric acid than ordinary 
bones, which fact is accounted for by the removal 
of the gelatin originally contained in the bones 
of marine animals of which the mineral phos- 
phate is made up. Again, we do not find that 
this mineral phosphate has any noticeable effect 
upon the vegetation of the soils in which it is 
found, in such immense quantities as to require 
removal in order that the land may be cultivated. 
The above facts are in strict accordance with the 
results attained by the experiments of celebrated 
chemists upon mineral phosphates. These ex- 
periments have demonstrated that pure water 
has no appreciable effect on them, and that 
solutions of salts of ammonia and of soda, nuich 
stronger than can be found in soils, have but a 
very slight effect upon them. Hence, as organic 
and mineral acids exist only as traces in soils, 
we may safely assert that they have no ap- 
preciable effect upon them, but that crude ground 
mineral phosphates must remain inert and useless 
in the soil ; their only possible value in the crude 
insoluble state consists in the carbonate of lime 
they contain, which can be purchased at one 
tenth the price paid for in mineral phosphates. 

Soluble Phosphoric Acid is produced by the 
action of sulphuric acid on bone phosphate of 
lime, phosphate of magnesia, and phosphates 



SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID. 145 

of iron and alumina. As carbonate of lime and 
fluoride of calcium are always found in bones 
and mineral phosphates, the sulphuric acid first 
decomposes these substances and produces sul- 
phate of lime, before any phosphoric acid is 
liberated or rendered soluble, because the above 
named compounds are held together by a feebler 
affinity than phosphoric acid with its base. 
Hence, if an insufficient amount of acid is used 
to effect both, the phosphoric acid is left in its 
inert insoluble state. Through the cupidity and 
ignorance of the manufacturers in purchasing 
mineral phosphates that contain a large amount 
of these substances, this is often the case, and 
thus they neglect their own, as well as the 
interest of the farmer. Again, as all mineral 
phosphates contain peroxide of iron and alumina, 
some as much as 15 per cent., a much larger 
amount of sulphuric acid is required to render 
the phosphoric acid soluble than otherwise, be- 
cause the phosphoric acid first liberated combines 
wdth the peroxide of iron and alumina and be- 
comes insoluble, and an additional amount of 
acid is required to again liberate it from this 
peroxide of iron and alumina. Hence, the im- 
portance of the buyer knowing the percentage of 
these substances in the mineral phosphate, and 
the amount of sulphuric acid used. Here again 
buyers are defrauded, in consequence of the 



146 AMERICAN MANURES. 



1 



manufacturer using an insufficient quantity of 
acid. (See page 55.) 

Sulpliuric acid being the agent used to render 
phosphoric acid soluble, we shall now show how 
much is required. Oil of vitriol, or the strongest 
sulphuric acid of commerce, known as 66° acid, 
contains 75 per cent, of anhydrous sulphuric 
acid. 

Each per cent, of the following compounds 
will require, to render them soluble, the follow- 
ing amounts of 66° acid, or oil of vitriol : 

1-00 Carbonate of Lime requires 1*066 Sulphuric Acid. 

TOO Bone Phosphate of lime 0-688 

1-00 Basic Phosphate of Magnesia. 0-810 

1-00 Fluoride of Calcium 1-367 " 

1-00 Alumina 3-110 

1-00 Protoxide of Iron 1-480 

1-00 Peroxide of Iron 2-000 " 

The above Table is very valuable both to the 
manufacturer and the farmer. The manufacturer 
can readily calculate how much acid is required 
by bones or any mineral phosphates, of a known 
composition, to render all the phosphoric acid 
soluble. And when a superphosphate of lime is 
represented to contain a certain percentage of 
soluble phosphoric acid, the farmer can very 
nearly estimate the amount of sulphuric acid 
used, and also the expense incurred by the 
manufacturers. The application of sulphuric 
acid to carbonate of lime or fluoride of calcium, 



VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS. 147 

dissipates the cjtrbonic acid and fluorine gases, 
causing a loss of weight, as follows : 

1*00 Carbonate of lime loses 0*44 Carbonic Acid. 

1-00 Fluoride of Calcium 0*512 Hydrofluoric Acid. 

To illustrate this matter fully, we will take 
for example 100 lbs. of ox bones, which have the 
following composition : 

G elatin 30-58 lbs. Sulphuric Acid. Loss in gas. 

Phosphate of Lime 58-30 " require 40165 lbs. 

Carbonate of Lime 7-07 " " 7-536 " 3-11 lbs. 

Fluoride of Calcium 1-96 " " 2-689 " LOO " 

Phosphate of Magnesia. 2-09 " " 1-692 " 

100-00 lbs. 52-082 lbs. 4-11 lbs. 

The resulting compounds, formed hy the addi- 
tion of the sulphuric acid, are as follows : 

Hydrated Sulphate of Lime or Plaster 81-17 lbs. 

Superphosphate of Lime 44-00 

Superphosphate of Mag-nesia 1-73 

Hydrated Sulphate of Magnesia 3-91 

Gelatin 30-58 

Carbonic Acid gas liberated and lost 3-11 

Hydrofluoric Acid " " " 1-00 

The above fully explains the theory of con- 
verting insoluble phosphates into superphos- 
phates. 

The following Table shows the average cost 
of the miaterials, and the w^eight produced. As 
the sulphate of lime produced requires two 
equivalents of water for its formation, if ther 
bones be perfectly dry, it would be necessary to 
add water in about the proportion shown below. 



148 AMERICAN MANURES. 

This water should be thoroughly mixed with the 
bones before the acid is applied. 

100 lbs. Bones, at 1| cents per lb $1.25 

52 " Sulphui'ic Acid, at 2^ cents 1.30 

25 '* Water 

177 " $2.55 

4-11 " Loss in Gases. 

172.89 " 

From the above Table we find that the mate- 
rial of one ton of such superphosphate of lime 
costs the manufacturer $29.50. As the 100 lbs. 
of bones contain 28.05 lbs. of phosphoric acid, 
the 172.89 lbs. of the combination would contain 
the same with 5 lbs. of nitrogen ; and one ton 
would contain 324 lbs. of soluble phosphoric 
acid, and 57 lbs. of nitrogen, showing the ton of 
superphosphate to be worth to' the farmer as fol- 
lows (cissuming 122 and 15 cents, per lb. as the 
value of soluble phosphoric acid and nitrogen) : 

324 lbs. of Soluble Phosphoric Acid, at 12^ cents $40.5C 

57 " of Nitrogen in organic matter, at 15 cents 8.55 

Bags 2 00 

$51.05 

The cost to the manufacturer is, as follows : 

1157 lbs. -of Bones, at 1| cents $14.47 

Grinding, at $5 per ton 2.89 

602 lbs. Sulphuric Acid, at 2i cents 15.05 

288 " Water 

2047 '' Labor and Bags 5.00 

47 " Loss in Gases 

2000 " Total cost $37.41 



PROFITS OF MANUFACTURERS. 149 

This superphosphate of lime would show, by 
analysis, the following percentage of the substan 
ces named below : 

Nitrogen in organic matter 2-85 

Soluble Phosporic Acid 16*20 

Equal Superphosphate of Lime 26 "70 

Equal to Bone-phosphate rendered sol...35*37 

The reader will observe that a superphosphate 
of the above quality can be manufactured at a 
cost of $37.41 per ton, and is worth $51.05 to 
the flxrmer ; and if sold at $50, allows a profit 
of 33-3 per cent, on its cost — quite enough for 
any honest business. He will also observe that 
12 i cents per lb. for soluble phosphoric acid (the 
value we have assumed in our calculations), is a 
fair valuation, inasmuch as that assumed value 
allows a large profit. We shall show hereafter 
that 15 cents per lb. is a fair valuation for 
nitrogen in organic matter ; and further, he will 
observe by turning to the analyses of leading 
manures given in Chap. YII., and comparing 
the percentage of valuable ingredients in them, 
with that of the phosphate above described, that 
one ton of the latter is really worth two tons of 
any of them, which are sold at from $50 to $55 
per ton. How great then are the profits of 
manufacturers, and the imposition upon pur- 
chasers ! 



150 AMERICAN MANURES. 

We sliall now show what soluble phosphoric 
acid costs the manufacturer, when he uses South 
Carolina mineral phosphate as a raw material. 
To illustrate this, w^e will take for example No. 
12 on the Table of Analyses, page 142. This an- 
alysis is very near the general average, and 100 
lbs. of such phosphate w^ill require the following 
amount of sulphuric acid ; the amount of gas 
liberated is also shown. 

These analyses are very imperfectly rendered, 
the carbonates of lime and magnesia, and the 
phosphates of iron and alumina being given alto- 
gether, with no statement of the amount of phos- 
phoric acid combined with them. As these gu- 
anos contain but a small amount of magnesia, 
we shall estimate the carbonates as carbonate of 
lime, and estimate the phosphate of iron and alu- 
mina given, as phosphate of iron. 

Sulphuric Acid. Gas liberated, 

50-07 lbs. Phosphate of Lime, require 34-448 
0-69 " " '^ Iron, '' -730 

10-14 " Carbonate of Lime, " 10-819 4-46 
39-10 " Organic matter, Sand, etc., 



100-00 " 45-997 

A ton of superphosphate of lime manufactured 
from this guano, would cost, as follows; as in the 
case of dry bones, should this guano be in a very 
dry state, about the same amount of water should 
be used : 



SUPERniOSPHATES. 151 

1207 lbs. of Mineral Phosphate, at 20 cents per unit .^^5.02 

553 " of Sulphuric Acid, at 2^ cents 13.45 

289 '' of Water 

Cost of Grinding and other labor, at $5 per ton.. . 3.01 

Labor of mixing, and Bags 5.00 

2049 " $27.08 

49 " Loss in Carbonic Acid Gas. 

2000 " 

This ton of superphosphate of lime contains 
280 lbs., or 14 per cent, of soluble phosphoric 
acid; and estimating the value of the ton from 
the value of this article at 12 J cents per lb., gives 

280 lbs. of Soluble Phosphoric Acid, at 12 J- cents... .$35.00 
Bags 2.00 

Value to farmer $37.00 

This value allows a profit of $9.92 per ton to 
the manufacturer, which is nearly 33 per cent., 
if it is sold to the farmer at its real value. But 
if sold at $50 per ton, the usual price, the man- 
ufacturer makes $22.92, which is a profit of 84 J 
per cent, on the cost of the article ; and the pur- 
chaser is cheated out of $13 on every ton he 
purchases, because the manufacturer exacts for 
it $13 more than it is really worth. 

But the real state of the case is much worse 
than this. The above shows what are the pro- 
fits to the manufacturer when the best possible 
article is made^ and the loss to the farmer when 
he pays $50 per ton for it. The manufacturers 



152 AMERICAN MANURES. 

make an article mucli inferior to the above, by 
using an insufficient amount of sulphuric acid, 
and as much water as possible. 

For the sake of illustration, we will show the 
value of a superphosphate of the following com- 
position, which is a better one than is usually fur- 
nished by manufacturers, as a comparison of the 
analysis we give of it, with that of the analyses 
of celebrated manures given in Chap. Yll., will 
show. 

1512 lbs. Mineral Phosphate, at $10 per ton $ 7.31 

250 " Sulphuric Acid, at 2^ cents per lb 6.25 

300 " Water 

2062 " 

Grinding, Labor, Bags, etc 8.50 

62 '' Loss in Gas. 

Total cost .$22.06 

2000 " 

This attempt at making a superphosphate 
would, on analysis, show very nearly the follow- 
ing composition : 

Soluble Phosphoric Acid 6-32 per cent. 

Equal to Superphosphate of Lime 10-41 " " 

Insoluble Phosphoric Acid 10-97 " " 

Equal to Bone Phosphate 24*00 " " 

K ton of this contains 346 lbs. of phosphoric 
acid, 126 J lbs. of which is soluble and 219 ^ lbs. 
insoluble ; and the value of a ton to the farmer 
would be as follows : 



DECEPTIONS OF THE BUSINESS. 153 

126^ lbs. Soluble Phosphoric Acid, @ 12^ cents $15.81 

219^ " Insoluble, of no value as shown, (see page ) 

Baa-s 2.00 



$17.81 

Here we have an article of absolutely less 
value than the materials and labor used in pre- 
paring it — the cost being $23.06, and the real 
value, only $17.81. But the manufacturer in 
selling it at $50 per ton, more than double the 
cost, makes $27.94, which is a profit of 1111 
per cent. ; and the farmer who pays $50 for it, 
and to whom it is worth only $17.81, is cheated 
to the amount of $32.19 in every ton he pur- 
chases. The farmer must bear in mind that he 
gets in many cases, as the analyses in Chap. VII. 
show, even a poorer article than the above, and 
hence, is cheated to a still greater extent. 

Most of the superphosphates (so called) that 
are now in the market contain only from a tenth 
to one-half of the phosphoric acid in a soluble 
condition, because an insufficient amount of 
sulphuric acid is used ; the balance, being insolu- 
ble, is of no value to the farmer, if it is contained 
in mineral phosphate, though it may have a 
value of 42 cents per lb. to the manufacturer, as a 
raw material to make soluble phosphoric acid 
from. They would fain make the farmer be- 
lieve that it is worth 41 cents per lb. to him ; but 
if we did not attempt to correct this idea, we 



154 AMERICAN MANURES. 

should consider ourselves a party to d irauds 
of the manufacturers in their attempts to reap 
enormous profits by statements which both 
science, experiments and observation prove to 
be false. Insoluble phosphoric acid, exceeding 
3 or 4 per cent, in any manufactured superphos- 
phate, is. proof positive of ignorance of the re- 
quirements of his business, cupidity or dis- 
honesty, or it may be all three, on the part of 
the manufacturer. 

Some manufacturers in giving analyses of their 
fertilizers, use the term " Soluble Bone Phos- 
phate." There is no such substance as soluble 
bone phosphate. There is Bone Phosphate, and 
14 parts of it equal only 6 '41 parts of phos- 
phoric acid. B}^ using the term " Soluble Bone 
Phosphate," they desire to convey the impression 
that the purchaser gets more than double the 
amount of soluble phosphoric acid that he really 
does. If the manufacturer uses the term " Solu- 
ble Bone Phosphate," 51 cents is the measure of 
value for it per lb., instead of 12 i cents, as for 
phosphoric acid, and the farmer should be care- 
ful in purchasing to note this. No honest 
manufacturer who understands his business uses 
the term. 

Ammonia and Nitrogen, as found in manures, 
are technically called Actual Ammonia and Poten- 
tial Ammonia. In most manures, and especially 



SOURCES OF AMMONIA. 155 

those malx tactured from organic substances, the 
amount of actual ammonia is very small. It 
requires no reasoning to prove that actual am- 
monia is far more valuable than nitrogen in the 
form of so-called potential ammonia, as the first 
named as found in Peruvian Guano, fermented 
dung, and urine has a marked effect upon the 
growth of plants, while other substances that are 
not quickly and readily decomposed, such as 
wool, horns, hoofs, etc., may contain an equal 
amount of nitrogen, and yet have no apparent 
effect upon the growth of vegetation. 

Manufacturers in giving analyses of their 
manures make no distinction between nitro2:en 
as actual ammonia, and nitrogen in organic 
matter ; but both are given as actual ammonia. 
But as we have determined the amount of each 
in the manures analyzed (Chap. YII.), we shall 
give them a value as nearly in accordance with 
the condition in Avhich they are found as possi- 
ble. We shall be guided by the same rule in 
the valuation of this article, as we were with 
phosphoric acid, viz : — the cost of production and 
preparation, and its value in the different mater- 
ials from which the manufacturers obtain it. 
Nitrogen is usually procured from the following 
sources of supply : — Peruvian Guano, bones, 
hoofs, horns, blood, and other organic remains, 

also from the crude sulphate of ammonia. All 
11 



156 AMERICAN MANURES. 

the salts of ammonia are soluble in water, and 
are directly available as plant food. Ammonia 
is contained in Peruvian Guano, as actual and 
potential, in about equal proportions. 

Professor Johnson says, " Peruvian Guano is 
genuine and good when it contains 15 per cent, 
of ammonia, and the sam.e amount of phosphoric 
acid." About one-third of this acid is soluble in 
water ; it also contains an average of 3 per cent, 
of potash ; and at the prices quoted below a ton 
would show a vahie, as follow^s : — 



7i per 


cent. 


of Potential Ammonia, = 150 lbs 


@ 15 cents,. 


..$22.50 


7i " 


(( 


Actual Ammonia, =150 " 


@ 25 " . 


.. 37.50 


5 " 


(( 


Soluble Phosphoric Acid = 100 " 


@ m " • 


.. 12.50 


10 « 


i( 


Insoluble, as in bones, = 200 " 


@ 4i " . 


.. 9.00 


3 " 


<t 


Potash = 60 " 


@ 8 " . 


.. 4.80 



$86.30 

The price of the first grades of Peruvian Guano 
is now from $70 to $75 per ton ; but as that 
which is now offered in the market contains 
about 3 per cent, less of ammonia than the above, 
this difference in the percentage of ammonia 
would lessen the value $12 per ton, thus mak- 
ing the calculated value, and the present price 
asked by dealers, very nearly the same. But 
when farmers pay $75 per ton for Peruvian 
Guano, they should be very careful to know the 
amount of ammonia, phosphoric acid and pot- 
ash it contains 3 and from the amount of these, 



SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. 157 

calculate its real value, in order to know Avhether 
they are getting the worth of their money. 

Crude Sulphate of Ammonia is sold at about 
6 cents per lb., and contains, on an average, about 
25 per cent, of actual ammonia, ^vhich would 
cost for actual ammonia per lb., in this form, 
about the same as in Peruvian Guano. But it 
has advantages in this shape. As sulphate of 
ammonia is a fixed neutral salt, there is no loss 
by volatilization, as is the case with the guano ; 
it also becomes fixed in the soil, and can be as- 
similated by plants in the proper proportions 
needed ; and there is no unnatural stimulation, 
as is often the case with Peruvian Guano. 

These are the most important sources of actual 
ammonia, and are the most convenient and 
economical medium of applying it as a manure ; 
and from these deductions we shall fix the 
price of nitrogen, as contained in bones, blood, 
fish scrap, etc., at 15 cents per lb., and the actual 
ammonia that is found in commercial manures, 
guano, or in sulphate of ammonia, at 25 cents per 
lb. The justness of these prices will be readily 
admitted by any one who will give the m'atter o 
little thought. 

Nitrogen, as potential ammonia, is contained 
in all manures that are prepared from organic 
substances, such as bones, dried meat, hoofs and 
horns, wool, hair, etc. The nitrogen contained 



158 AMERICAN MANURES. 

in these substances is given out during their de- 
composition as actual ammonia, and the value 
of this nitrogen may be calculated by the amount 
of time required for their decomposition. That 
nitrogen in this shape is not immediately availa- 
ble as food for plants, and conseqnently is not so 
valuable as a manure containing ready formed 
ammonia, is a fact that requires no reasoning on 
our part. The decomposition of nitrogenous 
substances, and the formation of ammonia, is a 
work of time, and time is money ; practical ex- 
periments have satisfactorily proved this to be 
the case. Therefore this potential ammonia can- 
not be near so valuable as the actual. 

The cost of nitrogen in green ox bones can be 
readily ascertained; if 100 lbs. of these bones 
contain 26 '35 per cent, of insoluble phosphoric 
acid, and 4*00 per cent, of nitrogen, as this phos- 
phoric acid and nitrogen are the only substances 
that give bones a value as a manure, we can 
easily calculate the cost of nitrogen in this form. 
According to the percentage given, each ton of 
these bones would contain and show the following 
value : 

527 lbs. Insoluble Phosphoric Acid, at 4|- cents $23.71 

80 " Nitrogen, at 15 cents 12.00 

Total $35.71 

This is a fair price for ground bones, and hence 
15 cents per lb. should be a fair price for the ni- 



POTASH. 



159 



trogeii contained in them. Fertilizers are some- 
times prepared from horns and hoofs ; as these 
substances contain 12 to 15 per cent, of nitrogen, 
such preparations would command a high price 
if estimated on the amount contained at 15 cents 
per lb. ; but nitrogen as contained in such sub- 
stances is very inert, and may remain in the soil 
for years and not become decomposed, or afford 
any ammonia to plants. Feathers, wool, hair, 
and similar substances, contain nitrogen in the 
same condition. These substances are often 
found in manures, and it would be very unjust 
to assign the same value to the nitrogen in such 
condition as to the actual ammonia contained in 
Peruvian Guano, sulphate of ammonia, or even 
the nitrogen contained in bones. From what 
has been said, the reader can readily see that 15 
cents per lb. for nitrogen in organic matter, 
and 25 cents for actual ammonia, are fair prices 
to the farmer, and remunerative to the manufac- 
turer. 

Potash is an essential ingredient of plants, and 
recently some manufacturers have made it an 
especial feature of their manures. It is usually 
applied as crude muriate of potash. This salt is 
obtained from Germany, where it is found in im- 
mense beds similar to rock-salt. It contains 
about 54 per cent, of actual potash, and costs 
nearly 8 cents per pound. 



160 AMERICAN MANURES. 

Potasli is sometimes used in manures as a 
crude sulphate of potash, this is generally very 
impure, and contains only 16 to 17 per cent, of 
potash, and can be purchased in bags for $30 
per ton ; this would make the pure potash about 
8 cents per pound. 

Potash salts can be purchased in New York 
for $70 per ton, guaranteed to contain 80 per 
cent, of muriate of potash, making the price of pure 
potash nearly the same as above ; consequently 
w^e shall estimate the potash as contained in 
fertilizers at 8 cents per pound, which price is 
evidently remunerative to the manufacturers. 

So that the prices we have adopted to estimate 
the value of the folloAving substances are for, 

Insoluble Phosphoric Acid as in bones 4^ cents. 

Soluble Phosphoric " " 12^ " 

Actual Ammonia 25 '* 

Nitrogen in organic matter 15 " 

Potash 8 " 

The above prices are for the strictly pure 
anhydrous substances ; but as many manufac- 
turers in giving analyses of their manures give 
the following combinations, which are calculated 
to deceive the farmer, by producing an im- 
pression that there is a larger amount of the 
different substances present, the following Table 
will be useful in showing the relative value of 
these combinations with the above prices : 



manufacturer's catechism. 161 

Soluble Bone Phospliate 5| cents. 

Hydrated Phosphoric Acid 9|- " 

Hydrate of Ammonia 12^ " 

Muriate of Potash 5 " 

Sulphate of " 4^ " 

From the difference in the rehitive prices of 
tlie different substances, the farmer can realize 
the importance of knowing what are the com- 
binations given by the manufacturers, as a basis 
for computing the value of their fertilizers. And 
for his assistance, we suggest the following line 
of questioning to the manufacturer or the dealer, 
when the farmer intends making a purchase of 
fertilizers : 

MANUFACTURER'S CATECHISM. 

First. What percentage of phosphoric acid 
(anhj^drous), soluble in cold water, do you 
warrant your fertilizer to contain ? 

Second. What percentage of insoluble phos- 
phoric acid (anhydrous), do you warrant your 
fertilizer to contain ? 

Third. What percentage of nitrogen, as it 
exists in raw bone, blood, etc., do you toarrant 
your fertilizer to contain ? 

Fourth. What percentage of actual ammonia, 
do you warrant your fertilizer to contain ? 

Fifth. What percentage of potash, do you 
warrant your fertilizer to contain ? 



162 AMERICAN MANURES. 

Sixth. What percentage of uncombined water, 
do you iDarraiit your fertilizer to contain ? 

Seventh. What percentage of ^ure potash is 
there in the " salts of potash " contained in your 
fertilizer ? 

Eighth. What percentage of phosphoric acid 
is there in the " soluble phosphates " contained 
in your fertilizer ? 

If purchasers would make it a rule to pro- 
pound these questions to manufacturers and 
dealers, should they not succeed in acquiring 
the information sought, they would, in most 
cases, be fully convinced of one thing, viz., the 
supreme ignorance of both manufacturers and 
dealers, of the nature of the constituents of what 
they make and sell. 






CHAPTER yi. 

THE NATURE AND VALUE OF NATURAL MANURES 

THE NECESSITY OF THIER ACCUMULATION AND 

PREPARATION COMPOSTING HOW IT SHOULD BE 

DONE — AND THE CHEMICAL ACTION NECESSARY TO 
BE PRODUCED 

There are many substances highly benelicial 
to vegetation, which are often neglected from ig- 
norance of their value. The excrements and 
litter of the animals kept on a farm, if properly 
preserved and prepared, will afford a large 
amount of valuable manure, and will restore to 
the soil a considerable portion of the elements 
of the food on which these animals were fed. 
But as most farmers raise cattle for sale, the 
bulk of the most valuable elements of the plants 
on which they were fed, is removed. Every an- 
imal raised, fattened and sold, represents a defi- 
nite amount of the vital elements of fertility 
removed from the soil ; and the practical farmer 
should, in order to preserve its average produc- 
tiveness, return an equal amount in some other 
form. 

163 



164 AMERICAN MANURES. 

Stable manure and litter from the animals 
kept on a farm, contain all the elements of 
plants; but if all these materials were saved with 
scrupulous care, the amount would be insufficient 
to preserve the normal fertile condition of the 
soil, and deterioration, with reduced crops, must 
ensue. It is folly to suppose that the straw and 
chaff — the least valuable portion of a crop of 
wheat — will grow another crop of equal amount, 
or that the excrements of a growing animal are 
sufficient to grow enough plants to raise another 
such animal. Therefore the prudent flither, who 
has a care for the interest and prosperity of his 
children, should endeavor by the best and cheap- 
est means to preserve the fertility of his land. 
In order to effect this object, he should know the 
value of all the materials that can be cheaply 
accumulated on the farm and utilized as manures, 
as well as of those he has to procure from abroad. 

All organic substances contain a portion of all 
the necessary elements of the plants cultivated ; 
but the amount in some varieties is so small, 
that the advantage gained would not pay for the 
labor of collecting and preparing them. The 
leaves of some trees are rich in some of the inor- 
ganic elements of plants, and would amply repay 
the farmer for collecting and applying them ; 
while others are nearly worthless, and their use 
as a manure would merely involve a loss of time 
and labor. 



BARN-YARD MANURE. 165 

The different manurial substances will be 
discussed in tlie following order: Stable manure 
and cattle dung — night soil — swamp muck — 
leaves — wood and coal ashes — marl — green 
manuring, and liquid manures. 

Stable or Barn-Yard Manure consists of the 
solid excrements and urine of horses and cows, 
mixed with the substances used as bedding. 
Like other substances used as manures, this has 
two values : one in its natural fresh condition — 
the other when it is properly fermented. This 
manure in its natural condition contains every 
thing necessary for plant food, in an insoluble 
condition ; but as every constituent is in a finely 
divided state, the action of the carbonic acid 
generated during fermentation will render silica, 
phosphoric acid and potash in a condition for 
assimilation by plants. The nitrogen in organic 
matter, also, becomes changed to actual am- 
monia. The value of the straw or other litter 
can be readily calculated from the Tables on 
pages 82 and 85. The excrements of animals 
when fermented, being more active as a manure 
than when in the natural state, prpve con- 
clusively the advantages gained by fermentation. 
The value of these manures is influenced by 
other causes. If the food is very rich, the man- 
ure will be rich in proportion. The excrements 
of a growing animal are not nearly as valuable 



166 AMEKICAN MANURES. 

as those of one that is fattening, because the 
growing animal requires nitrogen to make blood 
and muscular fibre, also phosphoric acid for the 
bones. On the contrary, the fattening animal 
requires but little of these substances. Full 
grown animals when in good condition require 
only sufficient food to renew the waste of the 
system. Horse manure is more valuable than 
that of the cow, as the latter has to furnish 
milk, which almost exhausts the food of its 
nitrogen ; also an animal with young will nearly 
exhaust its food, as it requires not only materials 
for its own sustenance, but also a sufficient 
amount to build up its young. Hence the food 
will be exhausted not only of its nitrogen, but 
also of phosphoric acid. In fact, the excrements 
of animals, like other substances used as manures, 
are valuable just in proportion to the amount of 
ammonia, phosphoric acid and potash they con- 
tain. The reader has been shown how varying 
circumstances will affect the amounts of these 
elements ; hence it is impossible to arrive at any 
strictly correct estimate of the value of a given 
weight of any animal manure. A general average 
based on extended experiments is given in the 
following Table, which shows the amount of 
water, and of the valuable constituents only, 
contained in 1000 lbs. in its natural undried 
state : 



CITY STABLE MANURES. 



167 





AYater. 


Phosphoric 

iicid. Potash. 


Nitrogen. = Ammonia. 


Pig Dung. 


840 lbs. 


8-0 lbs. 5-0 lbs. 


7-01bs.= 8-5 lbs. 


Horse " 


743 " 


12-2 " 28-0 " 


5-4 " = 6-5 " 


Cow 


864 " 


5-2 » 10-7 " 


3-5 " = 4-2 " 


Chicken " 


850 " 


15-2 ." 5-5 " 


21-5 " --26-1 " 


Sheep " 


670 " 


22-7 '' 7-0 " 


7-1 " = 8-5 " 


Human " 


750 " 


3-3 " 1-0 " 


15-0 " =]8-2 " 



The following Table shows the amount pro- 
duced annually by a single animal of the kind 
named, and its value, assuming the phosphoric 
acid to be soluble, and the nitrogen as actual 
ammonia. 





Amount. 


Phosplioric 
acid. 


Potash. 


Ammonia. Value. 


Pig 


200 lbs 


. 1-6 lbs. 


1-0 lbs. 


1-7 lbs.= .$0.62 


Horse 


2000 " 


24-4 " 


56-0 " 


13-0 " = 9.94 


Cow 


2000 -" 


10-4 " 


210 '' 


8-5 " =-. 5.15 


Chicken 


5 '' 


0-076 " 


0-03 " 


0-13 " =- .04 


Sheep 


50 " 


1-27 " 


0-.35 " 


0-42 " = .40 


Human 


100 '' 


0-33 " 


0-10 " 


1-80 " = .50 



By the above Tables, the farmer can ascertain 
the value of the excrements derived from the 
stock he keeps ; they will also show to some 
farmers the money -value of substances they allow 
to go to w^aste, and wall serve to correct the 
extravagant ideas of others, who attribute to 
stable manure and droppings of animals a higher 
value than it really possesses. 

City Stable Manures. — A cart load of the 
stable manure, usually purchased by farmers 
from the dealers in cities, and for which they 



168 AMERICAN MANURES. 

pay $1, should weigh ,at least 1000 lbs. ; it 
usually weighs only from 500 lbs. to 800 lbs. 

The average value of 1000 lbs. of this manure, 
if as good as ordinary barn-yard manure, lolilch 
is not the case, is as follows : 

Pure dung- 150 lbs., worth $0.70 

Straw or other litter 400" " 0.49 

Water and useless matter 450 '' " 0.00 

1000 " " Yalue $1-19 

If the farmer gets 1000 lbs. of a quality equal 
to barn-yard manure, for $1, it costs him as 
much as the same amount of the fertilizing 
elements would in Peruvian Guano; but when 
the greater cost of transportation and application 
to the soil is counted, it costs him much more. 

The great object of the parties engaged in this 
d^ing business in cities, is to buy the largest 
possible loads for the smallest amount of money 
from the stable keepers, and then to sell the 
smallest possible loads for the largest amount of 
money to the farmers. To accomplish this, they 
have carts of two sizes; when they buy they use 
the large size, when they sell they use the small. 
When they buy, they pack in as much as their 
large carts will hold ; when they sell, the small 
carts are filled as lightly as possible, by trained 
men who understand the art of filling a cart 
with a very small amount of material. Nor is 
this all. After collecting from the stable keepers, 



VALUE OF STABLE MANURE. 169 

they work directly against the interest of the 
buyer, by sprinkhng their heaps with water and 
then shaking them out to check fermentation, 
and thus loss of bulk. This practice of watering 
and shaking out, besides preventing fermentation, 
lessens greatly the value of the manure by wash- 
ing out the elements of the urine — the most 
valuable part of it — and also by removing the 
ammonia and soluble salts of the solid excre- 
ment. By such means many of these dung 
mercJiants accumulate large fortunes in a few 
years ; and the farmer in this, as in some other 
forms of manure, confounds bulk with quality, 
and prefers a large mass of almost worthless 
matter to a little of what is valuable. 

We shall now show the value of 1000 lbs. of 
well-rotted and air-dried stable manure, calculated 
from the analysis of Dr. Voelcker : 



Water and org-anic , -^- ., 

1 ,., ;, y 6i0 lbs 

volatile matte 



'game I 

itter j 

Ammonia 30" $7.50 

Phosphoric Acid 18" 2.25 

Potash 20" LGO 



Total !^11.85 



A ton would be worth $22.70, or equal in real 
value to a ton of many of the commercial fertil- 
izers sold for $40 or $50. The importance of 
the fermentation and rotting of manures, and 
subsequent drying, cannot be overestimated. It 



170 AMERICAN MANURES. 

saves In the cost of transportation and labor of 
applying, as well as presents the valuable salts 
in soluble form, directly available for the wants 
of the plant to give it a vigorous and healthy 
start; while plants manured with unfermented, 
unrotted manure, are deprived of what they 
need until these operations have taken place in 
the soil. Oftentimes by this cause they are so 
stunted in the beginning, that no subsequent 
application will make amends for the injury 
then done. 

We shall now give the value of the urine of 
different animals, as shown by the fertilizing 
salts contained in 1000 lbs. of each : 

Water. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. Nitrogen. = Ammonia. 



Pig Urine, 


9-29 lbs. 


trace, 


6-0 lbs. 


11.8 lbs. = 14-3 Ib.s. 


Horse " 


9-40 " 


trace, 


2-8 " 


15-4 " = 18-7 " 


Cow 


9-23 " 


trace. 


4.5 u 


4-4 '' = .5-3 " 


Sheep " 


9-65 '' 


1-3 lbs. 


7-2 " 


13-1 " = 15-9 " 


Human. " 


9-57 " 


4-0 '' 


2-0 " 


14-2 " = 17-2 " 



The following Table shows the amount pro- 
duced annually by a single animal of the kind 
named, and its value as manure, when fermen- 
ted : 





Yearly 
aiuuuut. 


Phosi)lioric 
Acid. 


Potash. 


Ammouia. 


Value. 


Pig Urine 


1000 lbs. 


trace. 


6-0 lbs. 


14-3 lbs. 


$4.00 


Horse " 


2000 " 


trace. 


5-0 " 


37-4 " 


9.79 


Cow " 


2000 " 


trace, 


9-0 " 


8-8 '' 


2.92 


Slieep " 


500 " 


0-6 lbs. 


3-6 " 


8-0 " 


2.35 


Hainan '^ 


750 " 


30 " 


1-5 " 


10-7 " 


3.16 



VALUE OF EXCREMENTS. 171 

The solid and liquid excretions taken to- 
gether, will show the following annual value: 

Pig Excrements, solid and liquid, $ 4.G2 

Horse " " " 19.73 

Cow " " , " 8.07 

Sheep " " " 2.75 

Human " " " 3.66 

From these Tables, it is plain that too much 
care cannot be exercised in preserving the excre- 
ments of man and animals. Every pound of 
ammonia that is lost or evaporates, represents 
the amount required for a bushel of corn ; and 
every pound of the urine of a horse or man, will 
furnish sufficient ammonia for a pound of wheat; 
and two and a half pounds of the urine of man 
will furnish the phosphoric acid, and more than 
half of the potash required for a pound of wheat. 

The fore2:oino: Tables will also show the far- 
mer the value of the manure, and its capacity 
for raising crops, as estimated from the average 
amount of stock kept on his farm. 

When we consider the great value of the 
excretions of man and ailimals, it is astonishing 
that so little attention is paid to preserving 
them. These substances, which are compara- 
tively lost in our large cities and towns, repre- 
sent a value of millions of dollars annually. If 
the average value of the excretions of the in- 
habitants of larQ;e cities be set down at two 

12 



172 AMERICAN MANURES. 

dollars for each, which is a low estimate, the 
reader can readily see the immense value of what 
is yearly wasted. 

Swamp Muck is a deposit of vegetable matter 
in low swampy places; it is in fact partially 
formed peat. It is usually formed of mosses, 
grasses, leaves, and branches of trees, partially 
decomposed, and in a very condensed form. 
As the most of these deposits have been accumu- 
lating for centuries, they have become valuable 
stores of the fertiUzing elements — often much 
more valuable than stable manure. Professor 
Johnson gives the average potential ammonia in 
33 samples, in the dry state, examined by him, 
as 3*14 per cent. This alone would make the 
dried muck worth $6.34 per ton. He did not 
determine the valuable inorganic matters, such 
as phosphoric acid, potash, etc. ; but it should 
contain a large amount of them. 

As many farmers have deposits of this kind 
on their farms, they will see the importance of 
utilizing them. Every opportunity should be 
taken to procure and dry as much of this sub- 
stance as possible. When in a dry state, the 
absorbent j)roperties of dried muck is remarkable. 
The most putrid and offensive liquids may be 
filtered through it, and the w\ater wdll come 
through perfectly pure and tasteless, the muck 
absorbing all the soluble salts and volatile gases. 



SOURCES OF PHOSPHORIC ACID. 173 

This shows the advantages gained by using dried 
muck, around stables and enclosures where 
cattle, sheep or hogs are kept, thus absorbing 
and deodorizing the liquid and solid excrements. 
Sometimes the application of muck in its 
natural state, is not followed by any beneficial 
effects, and in some cases it has been positively 
injurious. This may be explained as follows: 
All vegetable substances undergoing oxidation 
or decomposition attain a seeming inert or fixed 
state; and without the application or action of 
some powerful agency, such as lime, will remain 
in that condition for long ages ; and when sub- 
jected to certain influences, such as heat and 
great pressure, wliile in that state, will eventu- 
ally form coal. We are indebted to this pro- 
perty of decaying vegetable matter, for the vast 
stores of peat and coal that are stored up in the 
earth. Without this property, all organic sub- 
stances would be speedily dissipated, as carbonic 
acid gas, ammonia, etc. ; and even the mould, or 
organic portion of soils, Avould be resolved into a 
gaseous state and be dissipated in the atmos- 
phere. Although this property of partially 
decayed organic matter is the cause of its pre- 
servation, it materially unfits it for the produc- 
tion of cultivated plants, as it cannot, in this 
inert condition, give out enough to support 
them ; and it is not improbable that it imparts, 



174 AMERICAN MANURES. 

to some extent, the same property to the soils to 
which it is applied in large amount, and besides, 
favors the growth of many noxious weeds. A 
similar condition exists in old meadow lands 
that have lain fallow for years, which the farmer 
terms sour, and which are invariablv benefited 
by the application of lime. Hence the import- 
ance of composting swamp muck and peat, to 
effect what may be termed the second stage of 
decomposition, which will render it available as 
food for cultivated plants. Some authorities 
recommend the burning of peat, and the subse- 
quent application of the ashes, as a manure. 
Those who recommend such a course have but 
a superficial knowledge of its composition ; the 
most valuable portion of it is the nitrogen or 
potential ammonia, which would be entirel}^ lost 
by this process ; and besides, the value of the 
ash in furnishing the organic elements of plants, 
would not repay the farmer for his trouble. 

Miid, as found in the bottoms of ponds, ditches, 
and sunken places, has a very different composi- 
tion from swamp muck. Still some deposits of 
mud are valuable as manure, and would amply 
repay the farmer to collect and apply it. As it 
contains only a small amount of organic remains, 
it has but little value in composting. 

Dried Earth. — The absorbent and deodorizing 
properties of dried earth, and the benefits tljat 



WOOD AND COAL ASHES. 175 

would be derived from its use around stables and 
cattle-sheds, by catching and absorbing the liquid 
droppings of animals, is too little understood or 
appreciated by farmers. A large amount of 
valuable manure could be prepared yearly by 
this means alone, without much trouble or ex- 
pense, as the urine of animals — the most valuable 
portion — is too often allowed to go to waste. 

The Leaves of Trees, when well rotted in the 
compost pile, is a very valuable source of fertil- 
izing elements, as the following Table, showing 
the amount of the substances named, contained in 
different varieties in their dry state, demonstrates : 

Pliosplioric acid. Putash. Lime. 

JNIulberry Leaves. 0*36 per cent. 0-69 per cent. 0-90 per cent. 



Horse-chestn't 




0-61 




1-47 


•' 


3-04 


Walnut 




0-28 




1-86 




3-76 


Beech 




0-28 




0-35 




303 


Oak 




0-40 . 




0-17 




2-38 


Fir 




0-23 




0-14 




0-58 


Ked Pine 




0-48 




0-09 




0-88 



From the above Table the farmer can readily 
estimate the value of these sulgtances, and see 
how far they will enable him to produce valuable 
crops. To render them immediately available 
as plant food, they should be intimately mixed 
with the other ingredients of the compost heap. 

Wood and Coal Ashes contain a variable 
amount of potash and phosphoric acid. The 
former would amply repay the ftirmer for ap- 



176 AMERICAN MANURES. 



^ 



plying tliem ; but to render them more im- 
mediately available as food for plants, they 
should be thoroughly incorporated with the 
compost pile, as will be shown; 100 lbs. of the 
varieties of Avood and coal ashes given, contain 
the following amounts of potash and phosphoric 
acid, with its value for agricultural purposes 
annexed, estimating the phosphoric acid as in- 
soluble, at 4 J cents per lb. 

Pliosplioricaciil. Potash. TalueoflOOlba. 

Beech 53 lbs. 16-1 lbs. $1,51 

Birch 8-5'^ 11-6 '^ 1.45 

Oak 5-5" 10-0 '' ' 1.05 

Walnut 12-2" 15 3 " 1.77 

Poplar 13-1" 14-0 " 1.71 

Apple 4-6" 12-0 " 1.16 

RedPme 5-1" 5-2 " .64 

Coal Ashes (an^/iraa'^e) -5 " 0-15 " .3 

Peat " 2-0 " 0-2 " .11 

The phosphoric acid contained in ashes, is 
combined Avitli peroxide of iron, magnesia and 
lime; but as it is in a finely divided state, the 
action of the carbonic acid generated in the com- 
post pile will iiberate it from its bases, and 
render it immediately available to plants in a 
soluble state, worth 121 cents per lb. The 
leaching of wood ashes does not remove a??.?/ of 
the phosphoric acid, nor all of the potash ; this 
fact explains the value of Avhat is termed spent 
ashes as a manure. Hence, farmers can see the 
importance of emptying their old ash gums aiid 



MARL. 177 

barrels, and thereby getting a return for their 
contents in the shape of wheat and corn. The 
reader can also see, from the Table given, that 
wood ashes is w^orth as much, pound for pound, 
as many of the leading commercial fertilizers 
that cost the farmer $50 per ton. 

Coal and peat ashes do not furnish much of 
the ingredients required as food by plants, but 
their application would have a beneficial physical 
effect on some heavy compact soils ; and as these 
substances cannot possibly do injury to any soil, 
farmers should spread them over their land, and 
not let them lie in unsightly piles about their 
houses and yards. 

Soot from our chimneys and stove-pipes has a 
value as manure, but it is entirely neglected in 
this country. English farmers have derived 
great benefit from its. application. Where wood 
and bituminous coal are used for fuel, thousands 
of tons are yearly wasted. The following 
Table shows the quantity of fertilizing elements 
generally contained in 1000 lbs. of soot, and 
their value.: 

Gypsum or Plaster 50 lbs. $0.75 

Phosphoric Acid 7 " 0.87J- 

Potash 10 " 0.80 

Ammonia.. 17 " 4.25 

Total $6.67| 

Marl is a term used to designate earthy sub- 
stances containing a variable amount of carbonate 



178 AMERICAN MANURES. 

of lime, supposed to be derived principally from 
the shells of fishes. The amomit of carbonate 
of lime is usually from 10 to 20 per cent. There 
is a great variety of substances designated as 
marl, but tiiey may all be reduced to four general 
kinds : clay, stone, shell, and green-sand marl. 
The first very nearly resembles clay ; this variety 
usually contains from 10 to 20 per cent, of car- 
bonate of lime, and its value as a manure must 
be attributed to the action of that substance. 
Stone marls are generally richer in carbonate of 
lime than the clay varieties, and are a nearer 
approach to the ordinary carbonate of lime. 
Shell marl contains a large amount of shells 
partially decomposed ; its action on soils is more 
immediate, because it is more soluble than the 
clay and stone varieties. Green-sand marl is 
most valuable of all; it generally contains a 
small percentage of carbonate of lime, seldom ex- 
ceeding 5 per cent., while it contains potash in an 
insoluble condition in amounts varying from 2 
to 7 per cent. It is by some considered quite as 
valuable, weight for weight, as wood ashes; it 
also generally contains a small amount of in- 
soluble phosphoric acid, and its application on 
what were considered worn out lands has been 
followed by remarkable results. Where these 
marls abound, they are a cheap and efficient 
manure for the farmer, and should not be 



GREEN MANURING. 179 

neglected; marl also forms a valuable adjunct to 
the compost pile. 

Green Manuring consists in plowing under any 
crop that" has been grown for. that purpose. It 
has been recommended and practised for cen- 
turies. Spent or worn out soils are especially 
benefited by this operation, and no soils can be 
so far reduced, unless they refuse to grow any 
kind of vegetation, that they cannot be improved 
by this means. The least thought devoted to 
tbe subject will convince the reader of its su- 
periority over paring and burning, or leaving 
the land fallow. In the former case, the act of 
burning dissipates all the nitrogen, the most 
valuable part, and the ash contains the other 
fertilizing substance in an insoluble condition, pot- 
ash excepted, because the greater part of the car- 
bonic acid formed, which is naturally the principal 
agent in rendering them soluble, is dissipated ; 
while, on the other hand, when plowed under, 
the carbonic acid is slowly given out during the 
process of decay, and so makes the elements 
soluble. The gradual decay of vegetation on 
the surface of the land produces a like result, 
thouGfli in a less deorree. 

B^^ growing plants with long roots, such as 
clover and some kinds of grasses, and root crops, 
such as beets, carrots, etc., the fertilizing ele- 
ments often contained in the subsoil are brou-^'ht 



180 AMERICAN .MANURES. 

to the surface; and then by plowing the crop 
under it soon decays, and the fertilizing elements 
contained are stored up for future crops. In 
practising green manuring, the farmer has to 
sacrifice an immediate benefit for a greater future 
good, which may sometimes be considered of 
doubtful advantage. But when he has once 
tried the experiment, and noted its effects on 
future crops, he will find not only the value of the 
crop plowed under returned to him, but a large 
percentage in addition. Besides all this, the 
previous plowing is paid for, in making subse- 
quent cultivation easier, and in rendering the 
soil in a more finely divided state, which is a 
very important consideration in growing all 
kinds of crops. 

To derive the most benefit from green manur- 
ing, the plowing should be performed before the 
formation of the blossom, or seed, as the blossoms 
give off nitrogen, and the seeds may become a 
subsequent source of trouble ; also, the plowing 
should be shallow, so as to keep the vegetable 
matter near the surface, and within easy access 
of the oxygen of the atmosphere. But the 
reader must not think for a moment that green 
manuring alone is sufficient to keep his land in a 
fertile condition. The benefits derived from this 
treatment of the land can exist only for a lim- 
ited period, and the subsoil must eventually be- 



COMPOSTING. 181 

come exhausted as well as the surface. The 
prudent farmer must anticipate this state of 
things, by the application of other manures. 

Finally, we may remark that mere rest, with- 
out plowing ; or the non-j)roduction of any vege- 
table substances on a soil, does not benefit it. It 
is growing vegetation that effects the needed 
chemical changes in the soiL Hence the fiirmer 
should endeavor by all means to promote the 
growth of as many plants as possible, on the 
land he intends to plow under for the production 
of another crop. 

Liquid Manures are held in high repute in 
some countries, on the principle that it is better 
to manure the plant than the soil. It may be 
employed advantageously in truck farming, but 
is not at all suited to the general agriculture of 
this country. If the farmer has a valuable liquid 
or semi-liquid fertilizing substance, it is much 
better to mix it with dried muck, or mould, and 
apply it in as dry a state as possible ; thus di- 
vesting its application of its disagreeable features, 
and preventing the escape of the most valuable 
portion of it — the ammonia. 

Composting. This highly important operation 
is too often neglected by our farmers. This ne- 
glect very probably results from ignorance of the 
great benefits that can be derived from it. The 
reader has acquired a knowledge of the value of 



182 AMERICAN MANURES. 

the waste substances accessible to the farmer, 
and wliich can be economically applied as ma- 
nures. He has also been informed of the neces- 
aity of having these substances in a decomposed 
state, in order to make them efficient. 

To be successful in composting, it is necessary 
for the farmer to have correct ideas of the chem- 
ical changes and effects to be produced, and of 
the means and appliances by which these changes 
can be economically effected ; he should also 
know the conditions that promote or impede 
these changes. In the proper management of a 
compost heap, two leading points are to be at- 
tained ; First, the hastening of the decomposition 
of the substances used ; Second, the fixing of the 
fertilizing gases as they are formed. No offensive 
odors should escape. When such escape, some 
substance should be applied at once to check it. 

Some persons have recommended making the 
heap in a circular conical shape, with a well in 
the centre to catch the drainage, and with a 
common wooden pump set in it, so that as the 
drainage collects, it can be pumped up and al- 
lowed to trickle over the top of the heap, and 
thoroughly permeate it. There are two vital 
disadvantages attending this method, which we 
w41l point out: First, the amount of heat produced 
is a correct index of the rapidity with which the 
decomposition is being effected; and any applica- 



COMPOSTING. IS 



o 



tion of water operates to diminish the heat already 
generated, and consequently to retard the decompo- 
sition. All the substances commonly used in com- 
post heapSj contain a much larger amount of water 
than is needed to aid decomposition ; it is the 
oxygen of the atmosphere, not water, that is 
most needed. The second disadvantage attend- 
ing this pumping and sprinkling operation, is 
the loss of the free . ammonia contained in tlie 
water, which escapes into the atmosphere. This 
should not be assisted by agitating the water, 
but should be prevented by the proper agencies. 
We recommend the following mode of opera- 
tion, which obviates all the disadvantages of the 
former method, and which will recommend itself 
by saving a great deal of labor in the subsequent 
working : — An elevated piece of ground, as near 
to the materials as convenient, should be select- 
ed — the side of a gradual incline, if possible. 
The intended compost heap should be from ten 
to fifteen feet wide at the base, with both sides 
regularly inclining toward the centre, like the 
roof of a house ; the heap to extend lengthwise, 
as far as needed, up and down the incline. This 
arrangement prevents any accumulation of water 
around the heap, and also lessens the labor of 
turning over, as the heap may be turned down- 
hilL The next consideration is to prepare the 
bottom, or the drainage. Of course none of the 



184 AMERICAN MANURES. 

fertilizing moisture contained in tlie material I 
should be lost, neither should there he any addi- | 
tions to it in the shape of rain water. To effect 
this, a ditch should be dug lengthwise of the in- 
tended heap. This drain, at the lower end, 
should extend several feet beyond the heap, and 
be six inches below the level of the ground. It 
should have a gradual ascent of one or two feet, 
according to the length of the heap. The bot- 
tom should incline towards the ditch, the dirt 
taken from which will generally be sufficient for 
this purpose. The following plan is an end view 
of the compost heap, showing the shape of the 
bottom, and the ditch for drainage : 




The sides and bottom, of the centre drain 
should be boarded, and the top covered with any 
rough pieces of board or wood, with aj^ertures 
close enough to prevent the compost from falling 
through, and still give free passage to the drain- 



COMPOSTING. 185 

age water into the ditch. The farmer would also 
consult his interest by having the floor of the 
heap covered entirely with boards. 

Everything being prepared for constructing 
the heap, we will make a few suggestions about 
the collection and depositing the materials pre- 
paratory to mixing. Barn-yard manure and 
muck are the principal ingredients. Every cart 
load of barn-yard manure should be mixed with 
two cart loads of swamp muck, or with any 
other deposit that contains plenty of vegetable 
matter, except weeds that have gone to seed. 
The muck sliould be dug in a dry season, and 
spread out, so that it may be deprived of a great 
deal of its water, which will greatly lessen the 
labor and expense of hauling it to the compost 
heap ; and when there, it will be in much better 
condition for fermentation and consequent de- 
composition. Tlie materials should be hauled 
to the heap in the proper proportions, so that 
they can be thoroughly mixed, and the worli of 
piling up be commenced at one end, and the 
heap be finished to the top as ftxst as sufficient 
material is procured. The advantage gained by 
this course, over that of putting layer upon 
layer over the whole ground plan of the heap, is 
that if the heap is finished as you proceed, fer- 
mentation sets in sooner; and as the pile gradu- 
ally lengthens, the fermenting process passes 



186 AMERICAN MANURES. 

the whole length of it; so that by the time the 
farmer has collected all his material and finished 
the heap, that part of it which was first com- 
pleted, will probably be ready to turn over. The 
heap, when finished, should be covered with a 
temporary roof, to keep out the rain. 

When the farmer is collecting material for his 
compost, nothing should be overlooked. In 
addition to his stable manure, his hog pens 
should be thoroughly cleared, and all the night 
soil, chicken dung, wood and coal ashes, saw- 
dust, leaves, corn-stalks, straw, soap suds, fish or 
meat brine, and even old mortar, should be 
thoroughly mixed together in the heap ; and to 
every load of material, 20 to 25 lbs. of plaster 
or gypsum should be added, for reasons that will 
be presently shown. When the farmer has 
brought all together, he will astonish even him- 
self by the amount he has procured ; and if he 
attends to our directions, he will be far more 
astonished at the results, as shown in greatly 
increased crops. 

The most valuable substances contained in 
the material of the compost heap are Silicate of 
Potash, Phosphate of Lime, and Nitrogen as 
Potential Ammonia. The chemical changes 
effected on these substances by fermentation 
may be briefly stated, as follows : Fermentation 
and putrefaction are generally considered dis- 



SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID. 187 

tinct processes, but the chemical operation of 
each is precisely the same ; it is simply a union 
of the carbon contained in the dead vegetable or 
animal matter, with the oxygen of the atmos- 
phere, or the oxygen of the water present in the 
substance. This chemical union of oxygen and 
carbon produces carbonic acid gas, the properties 
of which have been fully explained. The 
action of this gas on the silicate of potash, 
separates the potash from the silica and forms 
carbonate of potash, the silica being liberated, 
as hydrated silica. This change renders both 
substances immediately available, as food for 
plants. Before the change, they were in an 
insoluble condition, and, if contained in unrotted 
straw, might remain in the soil a year or more, 
without benefiting growing vegetation. As the 
phosphate of Ihne contained in plants is in the 
most finely divided state, the carbonic acid 
attacks and decomposes this compound, forming 
carbonate of lime, and liberating the phosphoric 
acid in a soluble condition, for the use of the 
plant. 

There is a remarkable chemical law, namely : 
that some elements have no affinity for each 
other, and hence will not form compounds unless 
one or the other is present in what is termed the 
nascent state, that is, the state in which it ex- 
ists at the moment it is separated from a pre- 

13 



188 AMERICAN MANURES. 

vious state of combination. For example ; the 
two gases, nitrogen and hydrogen, the elements 
of ammonia, may be mechanically mixed, but no 
chemical combination will ensue. But should 
nitrogen be present when water is being decom- 
posed, the hydrogen being in the nascent state, 
actual ammonia will at once be formed. 

As sulphate of lime or land plaster — which is 
a compound of sulphuric acid, lime and water — 
is present in the heap, tlie carbonate of ammonia 
formed, decomposes the above compound, pro- 
ducing carbonate of lime and sulphate of am- 
monia, which is a stable compound, very soluble 
in water. The formation of this salt prevents 
loss from the volatilization of the ammonia. 
This is the. object in applying it in the heap. 
From this the farmer can realize the importance 
of applying plaster to his compost heap. Still, 
it must be added with discretion, and not in 
larger quantity than we have recommended ; if 
too much is added, it will check the fermenta- 
tion, and thus defeat the object to be attained by 
composting; 100 lbs. of ordinary unburnt ground 
gypsum will fix nearly 20 lbs. of ammonia. 
The sulphuric acid of the gypsum will also act 
beneficially, in decomposing the mineral sub- 
stances contained in the vegetable remains. 
The ammonia formed in the compost heap often- 
times undergoes another change, which may be 



THE COMPOST HEAP. 189 

termed oxidation ; being changed from an alkali 
to an acidj forming nitrates of potash, soda, and 
lime, if these bases are present. Some chemists 
hold the opinion that the nitrogen contained in 
these componnds, is far more valnable than as it 
is presented in ammonia ; but this is a difficult 
matter to decide, and more extended experiments 
are required, to enable us to give a positive 
opinion on the subject. As far as our present 
knowledge of the matter goes, they are equally 
valuable, although it is proved that the ammo- 
nia is more permanent in the soil than nitric acid. 

A valuable addition to the compost heap, is 
ground bones. This substance furnishes both 
phosphoric acid and nitrogen ; and if the bones 
are mixed with an equal weight of finely ground 
gypsum, and fully incorporated with the heap, 
the farmer will produce his own soluble phos- 
phoric acid, at less than half the cost he would 
have to pay for it, if purchased from the manu- 
facturers. Again, when the pile is turned over 
— an operation that nuist be attended to in order 
to produce good results — should the farmer de- 
tect the smell of escaping ammonia, another 
light sprinkle of plaster must be applied. 

The time required to produce fermentation, 
varies with the season ; in summer, the heap 
may commence heating in from six to ten days ; 
but in winter, it will require as many weeks. 



190 AMERICAN MANURES. 

"When it sets in, the heat gradually increases 
until it has reached a certain point; then it 
decreases, until it is imperceptible. The pile 
should then be shovelled over, and a second fer- 
mentation will take place as before; this cooling 
of the pile being caused by the exhaustion of 
available oxygen in the mass. If the farmer 
has attended to applying gypsum as directed, 
there will be no loss or damage produced by 
overheating. 

A great deal of vapor is formed during the 
fermentation, and a part of it escapes into the 
atmosphere. The farmer should be careful to 
note whether it contains any ammonia, which 
he can do by the smell. If it does, a light 
sprinkle of gypsum, with a little dry earth, will 
prevent loss. Part of the vapor condenses as it 
approaches the surface of the heap, and will 
gradually find its way into the drain ; and as it 
flows out, it can be mixed with earth or muck, 
and a little plaster, and thrown on the heap. 

One great mistake commonly made by our 
farmers, is in not allowing the compost heap a 
sufficient time to become thoroughly decomposed, 
before applying it. The time required to efiect 
complete decomposition is from one to two years ; 
and should it be used before decomposition is 
completely accomplished, the farmer does not 
get that return for his labor in collecting, mix- 
ing, and turning over, that he would realize if 



BAD COMPOSTING. 191 

he waited until the mass is in the most efficient 
condition. 

The practice of mixing up a mass of hetero- 
geneous materials, and letting it stand three, 
four, or six months, and then applying it to the 
soil, will not pay for the labor and expense ; 
rather than compost in that manner, it would be 
better to apply the materials at once to the soil. 
This quick method of composting — necessarily 
followed by unsatisfactory results — has brought 
composting into discredit and disuse by many 
farmers, who might derive great benefit if they 
complied with the conditions necessary to suc- 
cess. A still more reprehensible practice than 
that above stated, is that of using quicklime in 
compost heaps ; it should never he done. It has 
the effect to dissipate the nitrogen and am- 
monia ; besides, it absorbs the carbonic acid, 
and leaves the organic substances in their ori- 
ginal insoluble condition. 

It is very necessary that the farmer should 
know the value of the compost, and the amount 
that should be applied to an acre. In order to 
know this, he should keep an account of the 
loads of barn-yard manure and other substances 
used; and then, the Tables we have given in 
this book will enable him to approximate very 
nearly to the value of the heap, and the amount 
that should be applied to an acre to produce a 
given crop. 



CHAPTER YII. 

GENERAL REMARKS ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL 

FERTILIZERS, WITH COMMENTS AND CRITICISMS 

METHODS OF ANALYSIS CONCLUSION. 

The general reader, and particularly far- 
mers, should carefully note what is contained 
in this chapter, as it vitally affects their interests. 
It will show how unprincipled men, from selfish 
motives, and by dishonest practices, are stripping 
them of the hard-earned fruits of honest in- 
dustry ; and will give a limited idea of the 
extent of the frauds that have been unblushingly 
practised for years, nnchecked and almost un- 
heeded. We have already indicated the cure 
for these wrongs; and now, when we picture 
them in their true colors, thinking men, we 
doubt not, will at once apply the remedy by 
preparing their own fertihzers, and leaving 
those of dishonest manufacturers alone. 

We have fully proved the justice of the values 
assigned to the fertilizing constituents of com- 
mercial manures by us, and have also shown 

that the best authorities in this and other coun- 
192 



GENERAL REMARKS. 193 

tries have set their valuations lower than we 
have done. 

It is possible that manufacturers may object 
to our allowino; them nothing for the insoluble 
portion of the phosphoric acid contained in tlieir 
so-called superphosphates. But we have shown 
by the best authorities, that phosphoric acid as 
contained in mineral phosphate (the chief in- 
gredient in their phosphates), or even in bones, 
is not available as plant food for many years, — 
ten, twenty or more, — and the statements of the 
manufacturers themselves on this subject show 
that they are right in theory, if not in practice. 
The most limited knowledge of finance will show 
that no value should be assigned to it, because 
if it takes only 10 years to make it available as 
plant food, the interest would amount to as 
much as the purchase money; and if it takes 
15 years to make it available, the interest with 
the purchase money amounts to more than the 
value of phosphoric acid in soluble form. Be- 
sides, no farmer would knowingly purchase a 
fertilizer that requires 10 to 20 years to give 
him a return for his money. The loss by the 
use of such a manure is not confined to the. loss 
of the interest on the purchase money, but, in 
addition, the farmer loses his time and the 
profitable use of his land, which of itself involves 
many other losses. Independent of all this, such 



194 AMERICAN MANURES. 

inert substance should manifestly have no place 
in a high-priced fertilizer, the very name of 
which implies that it does not contain it. 

The products of the farm are closely scrutin- 
ized, and the quality graded, when they are 
brought to the market, and from this cause many 
a farmer has not realized from his produce as 
much as he anticipated. No farmer is allowed 
to sell the chaff with the wheat, nor portions of 
the cob with the corn. Butter must be properly 
made, as the quality fixes the price ; and should 
there be an extra amount of salt used, dishonest 
motives are at once attributed to the farmer, as 
intending to make up weight; and should the 
same butter be found a little deficient in weight, 
it is at once confiscated. " It is a bad rule that 
wont w^ork both ways." Hence, should the far- 
mer want crude mineral phosphate, it should be 
sold to him as sucJi, at a cost of $12 to $20 a 
ton, and not be palmed upon him under the 
false name of superphosphate at $40 to $60 per 
ton. We have hitherto dealt in generalities. 
Having spoken of frauds practised, in the mass, 
we shall now treat them in detail, and we 
hope the reader will examine the analyses, and 
carefully compare them with the statements 
of these manufacturers. If this be done, our re- 
marks about their frauds will add no additional 
force to the damning testimony which they 
themselves have furnished. 



ANALYSES. 



195 



ANALYSES OF WATSON & CLARK'S SUPER- 
PHOSPHATE. 

Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 

Mean. 



Water(expelled at 
2120 Fall.) 

Nitrogen. 

Nitrogen in or- 
ganic matter. 

Potash. 

Phosphoric Acid'^ 
(anhydrous), I 
soluble in water f 
at 60° to 70O F. J 

Insoluble Phos-~) 
phoric Acid(an- > 
hydrous.) ) 



1st 
Saniiile. 


■ 2d 
Sample. 


12-67 


12-89 


0-17 


0-19 


0-57 


0-62 


trace 


trace 


5-61 


5-56 


7-22 


7-18 



12-78 
0-18 
0-60 
trace 



= 0-22 I 



of Actual 
Ammonia. 



5-59= 9-21 



of Super- 
phosphate 
of Lime. 



r of Bone 
7-20=15-72 ] Phosphate 
(^ of Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
the farmer : 

255-60 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 

4-40 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 1.10 

12-00 " Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 0.15 " 1.80 

111-80 lbs. Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12^ " 13.97 

144-00 " Insoluble " " fa) 0.00 '* 0.00 



Total value as Superphosphate 

Value of bags (say) 2.00 



Total value to farmer $18.87 

The above phosphate is sold at $45 per ton, 
involving a loss of $26.13, or 138 per cent., to the 
farmer on everj^ ton he purchases. He pays for 
it very nearly 2i times what it is worth. 



196 AMERICAN MANURES. 

WATSON & CLAEK'S SUPERPHOSPHATE. 
The above fertilizer, from wliich the samples 
for analyses were selected, was purchased from 
the manufacturers at their office in Philadelphia. 
It is put up in 200 lb. bags ;, the one purchased 
weighed 201 2^ lbs. Its mechanical condition was 
good; the mineral phosphate from which it 
was manufactured had been finely ground, and 
there were no hard lumps to interfere with its 
application by drilling. The circular of these 
manufacturers is a model of its kind. They 
frankly state the kind of material used, and the 
source from which it is procured. They give no 
analyses of their article, which they should do, 
but say they manufacture a superphosphate of 
lime — 

"Under the supervision of Peof. James C. Booth of the 
U. S. Mint, and every parcel made is analyzed by him or hig 
partner, Dr. Garrett, in order to ascertain if it comes up to 
the required standard." 

They do not inform us what this standard is, 
but as they profess to manufacture a super- 
phosphate^ the required standard should be that. 
The analysis shows by the Insoluble Phosphoric 
Acid how far they fail. But if we take the 
price at which it is sold into account, it is one 
of the cheapest fertilizers in the market; i. e., 
the farmer gets more of what he needs for his 
money than in many other fertilizers more 
strongly recommended. 



ANALYSES. 



197 



ANALYSES OF RHODES' SUPERPHOSPHATE. 

Fercentaqe, oi' amount contained m 100. 



Water (expelled at 
'212° Fahrenheit). 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen in organic 
matter. 

Potash, soluble in ] 
acidulated water, j 

Phosphoric A c i d ^ 
(anhydrous), sol- 
uble in water at 
00° to 70° F. 

Insoluble Phospho- 
ric Acid ( 
drous.) 



1st 
Siiniple 



3spho- "\ 
[anhy- [ 



7-67 

trace 
trace 

trace 
3-63 

15-16 



2lHl 

Sample. 



7-79 

trace 
trace 

trace 
3-40 

15-34 



Mean. 



7-73 

trace 
trace 

trace 
3-52= 



r S u p e r phos- 
=5-80 1 phate of 



15-25=33-29 



Lime. 

Bone Phos- 
phate of 
Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 

dnce the following amounts contained in a ton, 

or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 

the farmer : 

154-60 lbs. Water @ 

Trace Nitrogen @ 

70-40 lbs. Soluble Phos. Acid (a) 



;0.00 per lb. $0.00 
0.15 " 0.00 

8.80 



305-00 " Insoluble " 



@ 0.121 
(cd 0.00 



0.00 



Total value, as Superphosphate $8.80 

. Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $10.80 

The above phosphate is sold at $50 per ton, 
involving a loss of $39.20, or 363 per cent, to 
the farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in 
other words, he pays for it 4| times as much as 
it is worth. 



198 AMERICAN MANURES. 

RHODES' SUPERPHOSPHATE. 

The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased from 
Messrs. Yarnall & Trimble, Philadelphia. ] t is 
put up in bags, marked 200 lbs ; the one pur- 
chased weighed 201 lbs. The mechanical con- 
dition of the fertilizer was good. The manu- 
facturer's circular gives the following analyses, 
said to be furnished by Prof Johnson in 1859. 

RHODES' SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

Water (expelled at 212°) 22-25 22-34 

Matter volatile at red heat 20-17 20-00 

Sand and insoluble matters 1-82 2*57 

Lime 14-90 15-85 

Phosphoric Acid, soluble in water. . . . 13-78 13-85 

" insoluble " -64 -67 

The above analyses of Prof. Johnson widely 
differ from our analyses of Rhodes' Superphos- 
phate. We do not question the correctness of 
the analyses given by Prof. Johnson in 1859, 
but there is evidently a marked falling off in the 
quality since that time ; and to publish these 
analyses with his or any other eulogistic state- 
ment, at the present time, is a great injus- 
tice to the Professor, and shows an evident 
disposition on the part of the manufacturer 
or agents to deceive and defraud their customers. 
As the fertilizer is now manufactured, in con- 
nection with the price demanded for it, we 
cannot characterize it as being anything short of 
a fraud and a cheat. 



ANALYSES. 



199 



ANALYSES OF BERGER & BUTZ'S EXCELSIOR 
SUPERPHOSPHATE OP LLME. 

Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 





1st 
Sample. 


2iul 
Sumple. 


Mean. 


Water (expelled at ] 
2 12° Fahrenheit), j 


915 


9-08 


9-12 


Nitrogen. 


trace 


trace 


trace= Actual Ammonia 


Nitrogen in organic ] 
matter. j 


1-42 


1-46 


1-44 


Potash soluble in ] 








acidulated water, j 


trace 


trace 


trace 


Phosphoric Acid ~^ 








(anhydrous), sol- 
uble in water at 
60O to TOO F. 


5-23 


5-18 


5-21= 8-59- 


Superphos- 
phate of 
Lime. 


Insoluble Phos- ") 








BonePhos- 


phoric Acid (an- V 


8-19 


8-36 


8-28 = 18-08^ 


phate of 


hydrous). j 








Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we 
deduce the following amounts, contained in a 
ton, or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a 
ton to the farmer. 

182-40 lbs. Water @ $0.00perlb. $ 0.00 

28 80 " Nitrogen in organic matter @ 0.15 " 4.32 

104-20" Soluble Phosphoric Acid.. @ 0.12^" 18.03 

165-60 " Insoluble Phosphoric Acid. @ 0.00 " 0.00 

Total value as fertilizer $17.35 

Value of bags (say) 2.00 



Total value to farmer $19.35 

The above phosphate is sold at |50 per ton, 
involving a loss of $30.65, or nearly 159 per 
cent, to the farmer, on every ton he purchases ; 
or, in other words, he pays nearly 21 times as 
much for it as it is worth. 



200 AMERICAN" MANURES. 

BERGER & BUTZ'S EXCELSIOR SUPER 
PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
manufacturers' office, Philadelphia. It is put up %■ 
in bags marked 200 lbs. ; the bag purchased 
weighed 201 lbs. Its mechanical condition was 
bad, the mineral phosphate from which it is 
made had seemingly been ground fine, but the 
finished product had dried in hard lumps in the 
bag, which would be a great inconvenience to 
tlie farmer if he wished to apply it w^ith a drill. 
It is strange that these manufacturers do not see 
the importance of reducing their fertilizers to a 
powder, before sending them to the farmer, who 
naturally expects it fully prepared to apply to 
tlie soil, either by drilling or by hand. When 
the farmer has to reduce these lumps to a pow- 
der, he is doing the work of the manufacturers 
for which he pays, and which could be done by 
them at far less cost. 

Messrs. Berger & Butz issue a very modest 
circular. They give no analysis of their fertilizer, 
which every manufacturer should do, as it alone 
is the only guarantee of its quality. The amount 
of soluble phosphoric acid and nitrogen it con- 
tains, is far more than in some other fertilizers 
that are more strongly recommended. 



ANALYSES. 



20] 



ANALYSES OF "TFTE MAGNUM BONUM SOLUBLE 
PHOSPHATE," DUGDALE & GIRVIN SOLE PRO- 
PRIETORS, BALTIMORE, MI). 

Percentage, or amount contained in 100, 



Water (expelled at 
2120 Fahrenheit). 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen in organic 
matter. 

Potash, soluble in 
acidulated water. 

Phosphoric Acid 
(anhydrous), sol- 
uble in water at [ 
60° to 70° F. J 

Insoluble Phospho-"~j 
ric Acid (anhy- V 
drous). ) 



1st 


2iid 


Sample. 


Sample. 

12-48 


12-57 


0-15 


0-17 


0-72 


0-73 


0-84 


0-82 


4-45 


4-48 


6-95 


6-62 



Mean. 



12-53 



0-16=0-20 



( Actual Am- 
1 monia. 



0-73 



083 



rS upe rphos- 
4-47=7'37 < phate of 
I Lime. 



( 



Bone Phos- 



6-79--=14-82 -^ phate of 
(^ Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
the farmer : 

250-60 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 



4-00 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 

14-60 " Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 0.15 

16-60 " Potash @ 0.08 

89-40 " Soluble Phosphoric Acid . . @ 0.12i 

135-80 " Insoluble " '' . . (cd 0.00 



1.00 
2.19 
1.33 
11.17 
0.00 



Total value as fertilizer $15.69 

Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $17.69 

The above named fertilizer is sold at $52 per 



202 AMERICAN MANURES. 

ton, involving a loss to the farmer of $34.31, or 
194 per cent, on every ton he purchases, or, in 
other words, he pays for it very nearly 3 times 
as much as it is worth. 

"THE MAGNUM BONUM SOLUBLE 
PHOSPHATE." 

The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
office of Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin, Baltimore, 
Md. It is put up in bags, marked 167 lbs. ; the 
bag purchased weighed 170 lbs. Its mechanical 
condition was very bad, being composed almost 
entirely of coarse, hard lumps, that were pul- 
verized with considerable difficulty, and we 
should think it would cause considerable trouble 
to the farmer to prepare it for drilling. Messrs. 
Dugdale & Girvin are comparatively modest in 
recommending this fertilizer. They furnish an 
analvsis as follows : 

ANALYSIS. 
Made by Prof. W. LeRoy Broun, formerly of Va. 

Soluble Bone Phosphate 13-79 

Bone Phosphate, soluble in the soil 27-94 

Ammonia 3-82 

Potash 4-24 

Soda and Magnesia 2-79 

This article contains the most vahiable constituents in large 
proportions, and I have no doubt will prove a very valuable 
Fertilizer. W. LkRoy Broun. 

December 3d, 1870. 



ANALYSES. 203 

We would characterize the above as a garbled 
analysis, calculated to deceive the purchaser. 
There is no such compound as " Soluble Bone 
Phosphate ;" the term is absolutely hypothe- 
tical. There is Bone Phosphate of Lime, 13-79 
parts of which contain 6*32 parts of Phospho- 
ric Acid. But perhaps 6-32 per cent, might 
not so favorably impress the buyer as 13-79 
would ; and " Bone Phosphate," with the prefix 
"• Soluble," is used by the dealer to favorably im- 
press the farmer (unacquainted as he generally 
is with scientific terms) that he is getting more 
than twice the value he actually receives. 

Our analyses and that of Prof W. LeKoy 
Broun differ widely. We do not say his is not 
conscientiously made, because there is a possi- 
bility, not to say probability, that manufacturers 
and dealers submit a sample of one quality to 
the chemist for analysis, and palm off a greatly 
inferior quality upon purchasers. Certain it is, 
that the bag we bought shows no sucli result as 
that given by Prof W. LeRoy Broun. 

The Professor's analysis gives 27*94 per cent, 
of " Bone Phosphate, soluble in the soil;" he does 
not say in how long, whether it requires ten, 
twenty, or thirty years. These indefinite state- 
ments are calculated to deceive any one who is 
not fully informed on the subject, and the motives 
for giving them cannot be too strongly repre- 
hended. 

14 



204 AMERICAN MANURES. 

This fertilizer is represented to be composed 
of Dissolved Bones, Ammonia and Potash ; and 
" entirely free from any adulterative matter." 
The analyses show that it contains a great deal 
of something that is not accounted for. The 
large percentage of water might seem unneces- 
sary to the uninitiated. The reader will notice 
that there is flir more of this substance than 
Superphosphate of Lime, and if he compares the 
price of this fertilizer with the "value, he will 
naturally come to the conclusion that it is the 
*' Magnum Bonum " {the great good) to the 
manufacturers and dealers, and the " Magnum 
Malum " {the great evil) to the farmer. 

Messrs. Dagdale & Girvin say that this " Mag- 
num Bonum is the great Generator and nour- 
isher of Corn, Oats, Grass, Wheat, Tobacco, and 
other crops and plants." Tliis must be a most won- 
derful property of this fertilizer, the inference 
being that the farmer need not use any seed to pro- 
duce the above crops — the manure itself being a 
generator. 

There might, however, be a great disadvan- 
tage connected with its use ; the farmer naturally 
would have a desire to raise a specified crop, 
the generator might beget corn when he wanted 
wheat, or oats when he wanted tobacco, or might 
produce them all heterogeneously. We make 
these suggestions for the benefit of Messrs. Dug- 



ANALYSES. 205 

dale & Girvin, so that in future they may be 
more careful or more specific in giving the quali- 
ties of this wonderful manure. 

" Consistency is a jewel;" and to show that 
the proprietors of this wonderful fertilizer are 
slightly lacking in this virtue, we give the fol- 
lowing analysis of the " Magnum Bonum," as 
given in Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin's advertise- 
ment in the "Journal of the Farm/' which an- 
alysis the reader is requested to compare with 
the analysis furnished by Prof. W. LeEoy 
Broun, formerly of Va. 

Soluble Bone Phosphate of Lime 15'33 

Bone Phosphate of Lime 19*64 

Ammonia (equal to 12 per cent, of Sulphate) 3-16 

Potash 4-62 

The laws of the State of Maryland require an 
analysis of every fertilizer to be plainly marked 
on each package. The bag of " Magnum Bonum" 
purchased by us had some blurred and half 
obliterated marks, which we charitably supposed 
were intended for an analysis, but we failed to 
decipher it after expending considerable time 
endeavoring to do so ; this showing conclusively 
that the intention was to conform with the letter 
and not the spirit of the law of Maryland. We 
would suggest to Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin the 
propriety of using larger letters and figures, thus 
saving considerable trouble to their customers, 
as well as saving their own credit. 



206 



AMEEICAN MANURES. 



ANALYSES OF WHANN'S RAW BONE SUPEE- 
PHOSPHATE. 

Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 

Mean. 



Water (expelled at ] 
212° Fahrenheit), j 

Nitrogen. 

Nitrogen in organic 
matter. 

Potash, soluble in 
acidulated water. 

Phosplioric Acid 
(anhydrous), so- 
luble in water at [ 
60° to 70O F. J 

Insoluble Phos-"^ 
phoric Acid (an- V- 
hydrous). J 



1st 
Sainjile. 


2d 
Sample. 


9-92 


10-06 


0-37 


0-42 


0-91 


0-98 


0-21 


0-19 


3-47 


3-25 


14-30 


14-46 



9-99 

0-40 = 0-49 I ^ctualAm- 

1 monia. 
0-94 

0-20 

C Superphos- 
3-36 = 5-54 \ phate of 
(^ Lime. 

C BonePhos- 
14-38=31 -39 ■< phate of 
Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we deduce 
the following amounts contained in a ton, or 2000 
lbs., together with the value of a ton to the farmer : 

SO.OO 
2.45 
2.82 
0.32 
8.40 
0-00 



199-80 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. 

9-80 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 

18-80 " Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 0.15 " 

4-00 " Potash .-• @ 0.08 " 

67-20 " Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12^ " 

287-60 '* Insoluble " " @ 0.00 '' 



Total value as Superphosphate $13.99 

Value of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $15.99 

The above Phosphate is sold at $52 per ton, 
involving a loss of $36.01, or 225 per cent., to 
the farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in 
other words, he pays 3i times what it is worth. 



ANALYSES. 207 

WHANN S RAW BONE SUPERPHOS- 
PHATE. 

Tlie above fertilizer, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased from the 
manufacturers' agents, Messrs. Cruft and Young, 
Philadelphia. It is put up in 200 lb. bags ; the 
one purchased weighed 203 lbs. The mechanical 
condition of the fertilizer was only middling ; it 
had not that homogeneous appearance that a first- 
class fertilizer should present. This condition 
may be caused by a portion of the Charleston 
Guano, or other mineral phosphate, of which it 
is largely composed, being treated with sulphuric 
acid, and then mixed with another portion of 
phosphate in its crude state ; and the superphos- 
phate, taken as a whole, did not present the ap- 
pearance of being prepared from substances of 
" animal orujinr For tlie benefit of our readers 
we have collated the following extracts from 
the circulars of the manufacturers of this super- 
phosphate. 

No. 1. " Plants during? their grermination and development 
require a constant supply of food, and it is necessary that this 
nourishment be furnished in such a form as to be at once as- 
similable, and capable of being immediately useful in sustaining 
their growth." 

No. 2. "The experience of the most capable agriculturists 
throughout the civilized world points to the use of concentrated 
manures ; those which afford all the elements of plant food in a 
readily soluble form." 

No. 3. '-The phosphate of lime, as it exists in bones, is in- 



208 AMERICAN MANURES. 



soluble in water, although when placed in the soil it becomes 
soluble to a very limited extent." 

No. 4. '' Quick manures mcrease the ftasmess capital of the 
farmer." 

No. 5. " Unlike Peruvian Guano, it (Whann's Raw Bone 
Superphosphate) does not exhaust the soil, but, on the con- 
trary, it insures a supply of valuable nutriment lasting through 
several seasons." 

No. 6. " The ingredients which enter into the composition 
of Whann's Raw Bone Superphosphate (raw bones, guano, 
sulphuric acid, potash and soda), are all subjected to thorough 
chemical analysis before they are purchased. No inert sub- 
stances are used. The phosphate is warranted free from 
adulteration^ 

No. 7. " With the exception of the sulphuric acid, potash, 
and soda, every ingredient entering into its composition is of 
animal origin." 

No. 8. " Our works are under the daily control and super- 
vision of an experienced chemist, and are furnished with a 
completely appointed analytical laboratory, where analyses are 
made of every ingredient used in the phosphate." 

No. 9. "Dollar for dollar, Whann's Raw Bone Phosphate 
will go nearly twice as far as Peruvian the first year." 

No. 10. "Instead of resorting to indiscriminate puffing for 
the purpose of forcing sales, the manufacturers have contented 
themselves with allowing it to speak for itself.'' 

The reader is aware that the quahfyirig name 
of this fertilizer is " Raw Bone." We are anxious 
to know how much of this substance is used by 
the manufacturers. On a careful examination 
we found what might be styled a sprinkling of 
hone, but not sufficient for the most limited 
excuse for giving it the name of " Raw Bone 
Phosphate." From the amount of soluble phos- 



n 



ANALYSES. 209 

phoric acid present in a ton, the amount of sul- 
phuric acid used must be very small. 

Mr. Whann says, that guano is used, but he 
does not state the kind or kinds, or the propor- 
tions. We hazard the assertion that there is a 
large amount of Charleston, with a very small 
amount of Peruvian. 

" He also notifies us that potash and soda are 
used. The reader will notice by the analyses, 
that a ton of his superphosphate contains 4 lbs. 
of potash, worth 32 cents. The benefits result- 
ing from such an amount cannot be very marked, 
as it requires 40 lbs. of potash for 25 bushels of 
wheat with the straw. No adulteration is said 
to be practised in preparing this superphosphate, 
but Mr. Whann admits to using soda. We pre- 
sume he means salt cake or sulphate of soda, 
usually sold for $10 per ton, or he may apply 
salt or chloride of sodium. In either case, when 
Mr. Whann can prove the necessity of the use 
of soda in any form in a superphosphate, or that 
a large amount of crude mineral phosphate, which 
when ground could not possibly cost him over 
$17 per ton, should be found in a high-priced 
fertilizer represented to be made from " Eaw 
Bone," and sells for $52 per ton, we will admit 
that there has been no adulteration practised ; 
and when he can satisfactorily account for the 
presence of 267*60 lbs. of insoluble phosphoric 



210 AMERICAN MANURES. 

acid in a ton of his " Siiperpliospliatej " and prove 
that this large amount is of immediate benefit to 
the farmer or to his crops, we will give Wh Ann's 
Haw Bone Superphosphate all the merit 
claimed for it ; until then we shall consider our- 
selves as cheated in our purchase of this fertilizer, 
and claim the right of expressing our opinion 
freely. 

Our farmers should take a lesson from Mr. 
Whann, and use a little of his caution in making 
their purchases, by assuring themselves of the 
quality of what they buy. As Mr. Whann says 
he keeps a chemist, we think it is due to him- 
self, and to the public, that he should publish a 
full analysis of his " Superphosphate." 

Were the manufacturers of fertilizers who re- 
sort to indiscriminate puffing to push forward 
their products, to inform the farmer as to their 
quality in a frank manner, by analysis we mean, 
a different state of affairs would now exist. And 
if the parties professing to make a Superphos- 
phate from Kaw Bones, had fully informed the 
farmer of the value of Mineral Phosj)hates, and 
candidly admitted to using the latter as a raw 
material, they would at the present time have 
little occasion to blush, perhaps, over their petty 
deceits and subterfuiies. 



ANALYSES. 



211 



ANALYSES OF SOLUBLE PACIFIC GUANO. 

Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 

Mean. 



k 



Water, (expelled at 
212° Fahrenheit). 

Nitrogen. 

Nitrogen in organic 
matter. 

Potash, soluble in 
acidulated water. 

Phosphoric Acid ^ 
(anhydrous), so- ! 
luble in water at 
60O to 70° F. 

Insoluble Phos- 
phoric Acid (an- 
hydrous). 



1st 
Sample. 


2d 
Sample. 


14-20 


14-26 


0-83 


0-87 


1-58 


1-44 


0-46 


0-49 


3-87 


3-74 


11-03 


11-23 



1423 

1-51 



-85 =1-03 I 



ActualAm- 
monia. 



0-48 

{Superphos- 
phate of 
Lime. 

f BonePhos- 
11-13=24-30 ] pliate of 
[ Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we deduce 
the following amounts contained in a ton, or 2000 
lbs., together with the value of a ton to the farmer : 

284-60 lbs. AVater @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 

20-60 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 '' 5.15 

30-20 " Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 0.15 •' 4.53 

9-60 " Potash @ 0.08 " 0.77 

76-20 " Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12^ " 9.53 

222-60 " Insoluble '' " @ 0.00 " 0.00 

Total value as a fertilizer $19.98 

Value of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $21.98 

The above fertilizer is sold at $50 per ton, in- 
volving a loss of $28.02, or 128 per cent, to the 
farmer on every ton he purchases j or, in other 
words, he pays more than 2? times as much as 

it is worth. 



212 AMERICAN MANURES. 

SOLUBLE PACIFIC GUANO. 

The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
office of the agent of the manufacturers, Phila- 
delphia. It is put up in bags marked 200 lbs. ; 
the one purchased weighed 195 lbs., being 5 lbs. 
deficient weight on the bag, or 50 lbs. on the 
ton. Farmers in purchasing fertilizers should 
pay particular attention to this matter ; as this 
fertilizer is sold at 21 cents per lb., this de- 
ficiency in weight is a direct loss of $1.25. We 
have estimated the value of a ton of 2000 lbs. ; 
this shows a greater value than the deficient 
weight could demand. As there is a deficiency 
of 2i per cent, in the weight, to be just, we 
should deduct the same from the value. The 
mechanical condition of the fertilizer was good 
as regards fineness, and can be easily applied 
with a drill. It contains a large percentage of 
water, which is a very objectionable feature; 
every ton contains 284"60 lbs., which the flirmer 
pays 2i cents a pound for, amounting to $7.11; 
to which if we add the $1.25 paid for deficient 
w^eight, would make $8.36 paid for what is a 
direct loss. As this company is represented to 
sell 20,000 tons yearly, the reader can readily 
calculate what is made from the sale of the 
water alone. But this is not a strictly correct 
showing' of what the farmer pays for the water. 



ANALYSES. 213 

We have shown what 136 "60 lbs. of the ton is 
worth to the farmer, as ammonia, nitrogen, pot- 
ash, and soluble phosphoric acid. Hence, he 
paj^s $28.02 for 1863-4 lbs. of water, sand, and 
other inert substances, which is over 1^ cents 
per lb. 

We give the following quotations from the 
circular of the wholesale agents of this Fertilizing 
Company 

1. "A beneficent Providence has aggregated the crude ele- 
ments of fertility in exhanstless quantities all over the world — 
^^pon islands of the sea, and in the sea and elsewhere. Nature, 
however, does not yield her treasures without an equivalent. 
Coal is found embedded in mountains ; the precious metals are 
held bound in the quartz rock, and are adapted to the uses for 
which nature designed them, only at the cost of labor, enterprise 
and capital. So also these deposits in their natural state are 
not in condition for practical utility, but modern science has 
developed methods by which they are capable of the highest 
utility to the most important of all interests. Hence, v/hile 
nature furnishes the crude, material, and science the method, 
still capital, skill, enterprise and labor are required to adapt 
them to the purposes designed by nature." 

2. " An intelligent pursuit of this business requires a know- 
ledge of the science of chemistry, especially as applied to 
agriculture; a knowledge of the physiology of plants, their vital 
forces, their structure and organism ; a knowledge of the con- 
stituent elements of vegetable nutrition, of their natural sources 
of supply, as to whether they be of organic or inorganic origin; 
a knowledge of the constituents of the atmosphere and their 
relations to cultivated plants, of the nature of soils and the 
conditions in which the elements of fertility may exist; a 
knowledge of the nature and character of the elements which 
should enter info the composition of a concentrated fertilizer, 
their relative proportion etc. ; ;\ knowledge of the dijfertncfi 



214 AMERICAN MANURES. 

and valuf. and quality of certain elements which professional 
chemists call by the same names ; for example, phosphate of 
lime, whether mineral or organic, is called phosphate of lime ; 
potash, whether supplied from felspar or in soluble form, is 
called potash. In making a report of analyses, chemists are 
not expected and do not make note of these important differ- 
ences. They take no note of the fact as to whether ammonia 
in a fertilizer be in the form of salts, or be generated from ani- 
mal organic matter ; hence, published analyses may not give 
a correct basis of value, for all these questions enter in the 
consideration." 

3. " If the business be pursued without these proper qualifica- 
tions it becomes the subject of quackery, as is the case in other 
professions. A quack is he who pursues a profession under the 
guidance of rules and examples, without knowledge of laws or 
•principles, and is therefore liable to constant blunders and mis- 
takes. No business partaking of the nature of a profession has 
been more subject to the intrusions of quackery than this very 
business of manufacturing fertilizers ; hence it is, that so raiany 
fertilizers have been placed upon the markets which have 
proved so nearly worthless, as on the one hand to involve loss 
of money and time to the consumer, and on the other to create 
distrust in their minds of those articles that are brought into 
market by parties possessing all the requisite qualifications as 
to knowledge of principles involved, and the facilities afforded 
by ample material resources." 

Little need be s<iid on these stilted quota- 
tions, they speak for themselves ; and if the 
reader will compare them with the analyses of 
their fertilizer, he will be satisfied that they 
know their duty, but do it not — hence the greater 
the condemnation. 

Rival manufacturers should feel obliged to 
this company for showing them the qualifica- 
tions requisite for a successful prosecution of 



ANALYSES. 215 

their business ; and, of course, rather than be 
stigmatized as quacks, they will at once qualify 
themselves accordingly, and then we hope they 
will feel the additional accountability they have 
imposed on themselves, and make a better use 
of their knowledge than the Soluble Pacific 
Guano Company. 

Their remarks on the practices of Anlytical 
Chemists are very exceptionable, and demand a 
few words of explanation. We don't wish to 
be considered apologists for these chemists — they 
are getting all they deserve — but it is not right 
that their profession should be made disreputa- 
ble on their account. In too many instances 
they have made willing tools of themselves to 
advance the interests and further the dishonest 
practices of these manufacturers ; but after it is 
done, these manufacturers, in common with 
other leading swindlers, shoulder all the re~ 
sponsibility on their subordinates. No honest 
chemist, in rendering an analysis of a fertilizer, 
would confound the potash as existing in the 
sulphate or muriate with that of felspar, or with 
felspar itself; neither would he make use of 
the combining numbers of gaseous ammonia 
with one equivalent of water, nor of the com- 
bining numbers of hydrate of ammonia for those 
of gaseous ammonia without an explanation, or 
use such a term as " Soluble Bone Phosphate of 



216 AMERICAN MANURES. 

Lime/' per se ; when this is done, it is the manu- 
facturer or his agentj not the chemist, that 
should be accountable. 

This Company can very properly be styled the 
' ^ Veneer ings'' of the fertilizing business. The 
large resources of the Company ($1,000,000) 
are prominently placed before the public; tbey 
breathe in every line of their circular ; they are 
reflected from the plate glass and gilt letters of 
the luxurious office of their principal agent ; they 
shine on the face of the porter that handles the 
bags ; they are on the tongue of every one em- 
ployed by the Company. But with all these re- 
sources, these men defraud the farmer of the fruits 
of his labor. In speaking of the potash used, 

they say : 

"Although the existmg war between France and Prussia 
may interrupt commercial intercourse, supplies already re- 
ceived by the Company are sufficient to meet its wants. 

"This additional element of value is made at considerable 
additional cost, but in pursuance of the policy to furnish the 
best article at the lowest possible cost to consumers, there will 
be no advance in the price of the Guano." 

"A great cry, but little wool." If the reader 
will refer to the analyses, he will see that each 
ton contains a little over 91 lbs. of potash, worth 
77 cents. This is only a sample of the high- 
sounding representations of these men, and shows 
the margin that should be allowed on their state- 
ments. It is due to the public that they furnish 
an analysis of their fertilizer. 



\ 



ANALYSES. 



217 



ANALYSES OF BAUGH & SONS' RAW BONE 

SUPERPHOSPHATE. 

Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 

Mean. 



Water (expelled at 
2 1 20 Fahrenheit). 

Nitrogen. 

Nitrog-en in organic 
matter. 

Potash, soluble in 
acidulated water. 

Phosphoric Acid 
(anhydrous), so- 
luble in w a t e r, 
at 6OO to 70O F. 

Insoluble Phospho- 
ric Acid (awhy- 
drous). 



1st 
Sample. 


2d f 
Sample. 


7-71 


7-50 


0-21 


0-22 


0-95 


1-04 


trace 


trac-e 


3-3G 


3-34 


9-25 


9-46 




• 



7-61 

0-22 = 0-27 



f Actual Am- 
1 monia. 



1-00 

trace 

i Superphos- 
phate of 
Lime. 

{Bone Phos- 
phate of 
Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
duce the following amounts contained in a ton, or 
2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to tlip 
farmer : 

152-20 lbs. Water : @ $0.00 per lb. $0.00 



1.35 
3.00 
0.00 

8.38 
0.00 



5*40 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 

20-00 *' Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 0.15 " 

" Trace Potash @ 0.08 " 

67-00 " Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12| " 

187-20 " Insoluble " " @ 0.00 " 

Total value as a fertilizer $12.73 

Value of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $14.73 

The above Superphosphate is sold at $50 per 
ton, involving a loss of $85.27, or more than 239 
per cent, to the farmer on every ton he pur- 
chases; or, in other words, he pays more than 
3i times what it is worth. 



218 AMERICAN MANURES. 



1 



BAUGH AND SONS' RAW BONE SUPER- 
PHOSPHATE. 

The Superphosphate, from which the sam- 
ples for analyses were selected, was purchased at 
the manufacturers' office, Philadelphia. This 
fertilizer is put up in hags marked 160 lbs. ; the 
bag purchased weighed 158 lbs. The mechani- 
cal condition of this fertilizer was bad ; it had 
formed in hard lumps in the bags, requiring con- 
siderable force to pulverize. 

We make the following quotations from the 
circulars of the manuhicturers, and from the 
"" Journal of the Farm," published also by them : 

1 " That the standard of our Raw Bone Superphosphate 
has never been unpaired, but that we have constantly sought 
to improve its value as a pei-manent Bone Manure by every 
facility at our command." 

2. " It is better than Peruvian Guano, because it does not 
over-stimulate the soil. It has less Ammonia than Peruvian, 
but it has Ammonia enough for all the purposes of a crop, and 
more Ammonia than this does more harm than good." 

3. " It is better than any Guano, or mixture of Guanos, or 
any Superphosphate we are acquainted with, because being 
made of Bone, it remains active in the soil, and continues to 
produce crops year after year, which farmers well know is not 
the case with other quick-acting and easily exhausted Phos- 
phates." 

4. "It has never been the policy nor aim of the manufactu- 
rers of Baugh's Raw Bone Phosphate to push forward their 
article by any extraordinary means, nor by disparaging any 
of the other excellent manures and guanos in the American 
market." — Journal of (he Farm. 



ANALYSES. 219 

D. '* Bone is the natural fertilizer, intended by Provi- 
dence to keep up the fertility." 

6. " The best manure is the cheapest. . . . At the 
present high price of all kinds of fertilizers, it is very poor 
eeonomy to remain uninformed of the quality and character 
of the manures used." 

7. " The price of the article, at the present rate of the raw 
material, is placed as low as it is possible to afford a manure of 
like standard ; the constant desire of the manufacturers being 
to furnish to farmers an article of a high quality, at as low 
rate as the most prudent and economical could not object to." 

8. " It is the cheapest fertilizer now before the public. — 
This is substantiated by the careful experiments of thousands 
of practical farmers in the United States, and the same con- 
clusion may be arrived at by those who will compare the per- 
centage and price of any fertilizer offered in the market." 

9. '• It must be borne in mind, however, in making this cal- 
culation, that Phosphate of Lime is valuable only in such form 
or combination as will act directly and effectually upon the 
soil. There are many fertilizers said to contain a large per- 
centage, which are almost useless or inoperative, by reason of 
this insolubility or connection with deleterious substances." 

10. " In Baugh's ' Raw Bone Phosphate,' the Phosphate of 
Lime is in its purest and most effective form, and acts imme- 
diately and directly without any counteracting influence." 

11. •' The reason of this is, that it is made from pure bones ; 
the original animal matter being present, and not having been 
extracted by burning, steaming, or any of the processes to 
which nearly all the bones sold to farmers are subjected." 

12. . . "In the process of manufacturing, the animal mat- 
ter of the ' Raw Bone ' is converted into Ammonia, and the 
Phosphate of Lime which it contains is rendered sufficiently 
soluble to act upon the growing plant." 

13. "And these two important agents begin to act at once, the 
Ammonia making the leaf and stalk, and the Phosphate of 
Lime making the grain." 

14. *' Neither ' Stable Manure' ' Guano,' nor any * Super- 
phosphate,' or other preparations with which we are acquainted, 

15 



220 AMERICAN MANURES. 

will at all compare with ' "Baugh's Eaw Bone Phosphate ' in 
its lasting effects, as a crop producer and permanent improver 
of the soil." 

Messrs. Dugclale and Girvin, of Baltimore, are 
the wholesale agents for Baugh's Baw Bone 
Phosphate. We quote the following from their 
circular in relation to this fertilizer : 

" In again offering to the agricultural community this well 
known Fertilizer, it is only necessary for us to say that it is 

HIGHLY IMPROVED AND BETTER THAN EVER." 

" The basis of its manufacture is, as formerly, pure Raw 
Bone." 

" It has more Soluble Phosphate — hence is quicker in its 
action." 

" Although second to none, and superior to many other Ferti- 
lizers, its price is lower than most articles of similar value." 

ANALYSIS! 

Soluble Bone Phosphate 14-10 

Soluble in the soil 19*64 

Ammonia 3-16 

The reader will notice that the chemist's sis:- 
nature is wanting; and as no honest, capahle 
chemist would make use of such terms as " Solu- 
ble Bone Phosphate," or '' Soluble . in the soil " 
without an explanation, the above " analysis " 
is open to very grave suspicion. 

Note, — One of the authors having been in the employ of 
Messrs. Bangh & Sons for a nnmber of years, the authors, 
from a feeling of delicacy, forbear criticising or censuring either 
their circular or product ; otherwise, they might do so with 
great propriety. 



ANALYSES. 



221 



ANALYSES OF K. FRANK COE'S SUPERPHOS- 
PHATE OF LIME. 

Percentage, or amount contaiiied in 100. 

Mean. 



Water (expelled at 

212° Fahrenheit). 

Nitrogen 



Nitrogen in organic 
matter 

Potash, sohible in 
acidulated water. 

Phosphoric A c i d ^ 
(anhydrous), sol- 
uble in water at f 
60° to 70° F J 

Insoluble Phospho-") 
ric Acid (anhy- v 



drous) 



1st 
Sample. 


2il 
Sample. 


13-00 


13-11 


0-55 


0-51 


1-3.5 


1-43 


trace 


trace 


6-39 


6-53 


8-29 


8-32 



13-06 
0-53 
1-39 



=0-64 I 



Actual Am- 
monia. 



trace 



6-46=10-64 



8-31=18-14 



Superphos- 
phate of 
Lime. 

Bone Phos- 
phate of 
Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses we de- 
duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
the farmer : 

261-20 lbs. Water @ 

Actual Ammonia @ 

Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 

Soluble Phos. Acid @ 

Insoluble " " .... ((b 



12-80 

27-80 

129-20 

166-20 



$ 0.00 per lb. 
0.25 " 
0.15 " 
0.121 " 



0.00 



$0.00 
3.20 
4.17 

16.15 
0.00 



Total value as fertilizer $23.52 

Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $25.52 

The above Superphosphate is sold at $52 per 
ton, involving a loss of $26.48, or nearly 104 
per cent, to the farmer on every ton he pur- 
chases ; or, in other words, he pays more than 
twice as much as it is worth. 



222 AMERICAN MANURES. 

E. FRANK COE'S SUPERPHOSPHATE 
OF LIME. 

The above Superphospliate, from which sam- 
ples for analyses were selected, was purchased 
from Graham, Emlen & Passmore, the manufac- 
turer's agents, Philadelphia. Its mechanical con- 
dition was good, and we should think it could be 
easily applied with a drill. We select the fol- 
lowing analyses from the manufacturer's circu- 
lar ; the first was made by Dr. G. A. Liebig, Bal- 
timore, dated August 3d, 1854. The second was 
made by Professor S. W. Johnson, of Yale Col- 
lege, dated May 23d, 1865. If the reader will 
compare these analyses with the analyses of this 
Superphosphate as purchased by us, he will see 
how this celebrated fertilizer has gradually de- 
teriorated in value ; comment is unnecessary : 

ANALYSIS BY DR LIEBIG, GIVES : 

Phosphoric Acid contained in Biphosphate of Lime, 12-11 

Phosphoric Acid free (anhydrous) 4-80 

Total Phosphoric acid (soluble) 16"91 

Phosphate of Iron and Ammonia. 0"34 

Alkaline Salts -41 

Organic matter capable of producing Ammonia 3*65 

"Water as Moisture and Loss 15-87 

ANALYSIS BY PROFESSOR JOHNSON, GIVES : 

Water expelled at 212° 12-18 

Soluble Phosphoric Acid 9-43 

Insoluble Phosphoric Acid 1*65 

Ammonia in organic and volatile matters 2-76 



ANALYSES. 



223 



ANALYSES OF MORO PHILLIPS' PHUINE. 

Percentaqe, or amount contained in 100. 



Water (expelled at] 

212° Fahrenheit). J 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen in organic 
matter. 

Potash, soluble in 
acidulated water. 

Phosphoric Acid 
(anhydrous), sol- 
uble in water at 
60° to 70° F. 

Insoluble Phospho- 
ric Acid (anhy- 
drous). 



1st 


2 lid 1 


Sample. 


Sample. 


7-88 


7-7G 


0-17 


0-18 


0-93 


0-95 


0-94 


0-88 


2-71 


2-65 


13-89 


13-97 



Mean. 



7-82 

0-18=0-22 
0-94 

0-91 



f Actual Am- 
l monia. 



r S u p e r phos- 
2-68=4-42 \ phate of 
(. Lime. 



13-93=30-41 



Bone Phos- 



phate 
Lime. 



of 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 

the farmer : 

156-40 lbs. Water .' @ $0.00 per lb. 



4-40 " Actual Ammonia @ 

18*80 " Nitrogen in organic mat. .. . @ 

18-20 " Potash @ 

53-60 " Soluble Phos. Acid @ 

278-60 " Insoluble " " (a) 



0.25 

0.15 

0.08 

0.12i 

0.00 



^0.00 
1.10 

2.82 
1.46 
6.70 
0.00 



Total value as fertilizer $1-2.08 

Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $14.08 

The above Fertihzer is sold at $50 per ton, in- 
volving a loss of $35. 92, or 255 percent., to the far- 
mer on every ton he purchases; or, in other words, 
he pays for it 82 times as much as it is worth. 



224 



AMERICAN MxVNUEES. 



ANALYSES OF MORO PHILLIPS' GP:N UINE IM- 
PROVED SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

Percentage, or atnount contained in 100. 





1st 
Sample. 


2(1 j 
Sainnle. 1 

1 


Mean. 


Water(expelledat \ 
2120 Fah.) J 

Nitrogen. 

Nitrogen in or- ] 
ganic matter, j 


12-40 
0-26 
0-39 


12-42 
0-21 
0-42 


12-41 
0-24= 
0-41 


f Actual Am 

::0-29 \ 

( monia. 


Potash, soluble in ] 
acidulated \Yater i 


0-80 


0-74 


0-77 




Phosphoric Acid ^ 
(anhydrous), 1 
soluble in water f 
at 60O to 70- F. J 


4-63 


4-54 


4-59= 


r Superphos- 
= 7-56 < phate of 
(^ Lime. 


Insoluble Phos- "^ 








TBonePhos- 


phoric Acid l 


13-21 


13-40 


13-31= 


=29 06] phate of 


(anhydrous). ) 








(^ Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
the farmer : 

248-20 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb 

5-80 " Actual Ammonia @ 

8-20 '• Nitrogen in organic mat.. . . @ 

15-40 " Potash @ 

91-80 " Soluble Phos. Acid @ 

266-20 " Insoluble " " (a) 



0.00 per lb. 


$0.00 


0.25 '' 


1.45 


0.15 " 


1.23 


0.08 


1.23 


0.12* " 


11.48 


0.00 


0.00 



Total value as fertilizer $15-39 

Value of bags (say) 2.00 



Total value to farmer $17-39 

The above Superphosphate is sold at $50 per 
ton, involving a loss of $32.61, or 188 per cent. 
to the farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in 
other words, he pays for it nearly 2A times as 
much as it is worth. 



I 



ANALYSES. 225 

MOKO PHILLIPS' GENUINE IMPROVED 
SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

The above Superphosphate, from which the 
samples for analyses were selected, was purchased 
from the manufacturer at his office in Philadel- 
phia. It is put up in bags marked 200 lbs. ; 
the one purchased weighed 200 lbs. The 
Phuine was purchased at the works of the man- 
ufacturer in Camden. It is put up in bags 
marked 200 lbs. ; the one purchased weighed 
196 lbs. The mechanical condition of both the 
Superphospliate and the Phuine was very good, 
and we should judge that they could be easily ap- 
plied with a drill. We give the following quo- 
tations from the circular of the manufacturer, 
showing what he morlestly claims for his " Genu- 
ine Improved Superphosphate of Lime." Of the 
Phuine, he says nothing. Our analyses of the 
latter will fully show its claims. 

" i^^Calling the attention of buyers to this highly concen- 
trated genuine Superphosphate, I guarantee it to be as repre- 
sented." 

" I CLAIM, 

"First. — That it contains less moisture than any other in 
the market. The ingredients of this Superphosphate are Bone 
Phosphate, Sulphuric Acid and Ammonia." 

"Second. — It is more uniform in quality, one bag being a fair 
sample of 10,000 tons." 

"Third. — It contains more agricultural value than any other 
Superphosphate of Lime in the market." 

" Fourth. — The desire of the manufacturer to maintain his 



226 AMERICAN MANURES. 

high reputation as a manufacturer of acids and other ch?mi 
cals, as well as the manufacturer of tlie best Superphosphate, 
is a safe ground of assurance tliat it will always be uniformly 
excellent ; and a further guarantee of uniformity is, that it is 
always made in the same way from one source, and that its 
ource is unlimited in extent, and under his entire control." 

" Fifth. — The consumer can depend upon always receiving a 
uniform article." 

" I recommend this article with confidence, because I know 
what it is, and have experience as to its effects. The value of 
a real Supherphosphate of Lime as a fertilizer is well known, 
both in this country and Europe. In England alone, more 
than ONE HUNDRED thousand tons are annually sold. I intro- 
duce this article to farmers in general as a staple and standard 
article, intending to make it a permanent trade." 

" Examine carefully the brand on each barrel and bag ; by 
paying attention to this you will never be deceived into buying 
a worthless article." 

" Tiie proprietor had to overcome at first the great predju- 
dice existing to Superphosphates in general, as there had been 
so many spurious articles in the market of late years ; but he is 
happy to say, he has succeeded in doing so, and the only way 
now to retain the returning confidence of agriculturists, is to 
keep true to his promise and keep his Superphosphate to its 
standard." 

" Caution to Buyers, 
" Observe that my name and place of manufacture are on 
each and every package, none other being genuine. I will 
guarantee the quality of every package sold by me, and if any 
manufacturer or dealer should be induced, by the reputation 
of my article, to palm a spurious imitation of it on the public, 
it will be my business to detect and punish him. Should this 
book reach any parties who have sold or used, or who may 
hereafter use my Superphosphate, and should it not fulfil all 
it professes to do, they have full liberty to contradict my 
assertions, and I will cheerfully bear all the expenses of the 
same." '• Moro Phillips, 

"Sole Proprietor and Manufacturer." 



ANALYSES. 227 

This maimfacturer makes great pretensions 
of the quality and standard of his Superphos- 
phate ; but unfortunately he has not stated in his 
circulars what this quality and standard is, or 
given an analysis; consequently, we are com- 
pelled to take our analyses of his Superphosphate 
as our guide in deciding this matter, from which 
showing we feel compelled to state that the 
standard is low and the quality bad, and at the 
price at which it is sold, is a shameful imposi- 
tion on the farmer ; and also that the manufac- 
turer should look at home, instead of censuring 
rival manufacturers, or, in other words, " He 
should take the beam out of his own eye, to ena- 
ble him to see clearly to take the mote out of 
his brother's eye." And we think the agricultural 
community will consider it the duty of the manu- 
facturer to elevate the standard and improve 
the quality of his Superphosphate, if that be 
IDossihle, rather than keep it at its present 
grade. When he does this, he will discover that 
it is not necessary to blow his own trumpet as 
long and as loud as he has done. 

Little need be said of the Phuine ; it is sold 
at the same price as the Superphosphate, and 
hence, the reader can see by the analyses, that 
it is even a greater swindle than the latter. 



228 



AMERICAN MANURES. 



ANALYSES OF "THE EXCELLENZA AMMONIATED 
SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE." 

Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 



Water (expelled at \ 
2120Falirenlieit) J 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen in or- 
ganic matter . . 

Potash, soluble in | 
acidulated water, i 

Phosphoric Acid ] 
(anhydrous), sol- | 
uble in water at j 
60O to 70° F... J 

Insohible Phos- "i 
phoric Acid (an- \ 
hydrous) J 



1st 
Sample. 

13-86 


2d 
Sample. 


13-79 


0-55 


0-57 


2-41 


2-31 


trace 


trace 


9-71 


9-84 


1-68 


1-57 



Meau. 



)-68 I 



Actual Am- 
monia. 



13-83 

0-56 
2-36 

trace 



( Superphos- 
9-78=16-12 } phate of 
I. Lime. 

iBone Phos- 
phate of 
Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
the farmer : 

276-60 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb 

13-60 " Actual Ammonia (c^ 0.25 

47 20 " Nitrogen in organic matter. («) 0.15 " 
Trace Potash @ 0.08 •" 

195-60 " Soluble Phosphoric Acid.. @ 0.12^ " 
32-60 " Insoluble " " (a) 0.00 " 



$ 0.00 
3.40 
7.08 
0.00 
24.45 
0.00 



Total value as fertilizer $34.93 

Value of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $36.93 

The above fertilizer is sold at $56 per ton, in- 
volving a loss of $19.07, or 52 per cent, to the 
fanner on every ton he purchases ; or, in other 
words, he pays for it more than 1^ times as 

liiucli as it is worth. 



ANALYSES. 229 

THE EXCELLENZA AMMONIATED 
SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE. 

The above phosphate, from which samples 

for analyses were selected, was purchased from 

Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin, Baltimore. It is put 

up in bags marked 200 lbs. ; the one purchased 

weighed 198 lbs. Its mechanical condition was 

good. Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin state in their 

circular that : 

" We have been at special pains in the manufacture of the ' Ex- 
cellenza,' to produce a greater amount of soluble material for the 
price, than any other fertilizer with which we are acquainted." 

They also give an endorsement and analysis 
of Professor Chandler, as follows : 

"School of Mines, Columbia College. 
"New York, September 26, 1870. 
"I have examined the 'Excellenza' ammoniated superphos- 
phate of lime, and find it to be an excellent article, containing from 
14 to 15 per cent, of soluble phosphoric acid, which is a veri/ 
unusual yercentage. It also contains a very good percentage 
of ammonia, or ammonia-producing materials. It is one of the 
best fertilizers in the market, and is superior to most of the other 
superphosphates. " C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., 

'^ Prof. Analytical and Applied Chemistry.'* 

CERTIFICATE OF ANALYSIS. 

New York, August 11, 1870. 
The sample of "Excellenza Ammoniated Soluble Phosphate," 
submitted to me for examination, contains, 

Ammonia (N.H. 4-0) 4'16 

Soluble Phosphoric Acid 14'45 

Equal to Soluble Bone Phof^phate 31-50 

Insolul)le Phosphoric Acid 0"26 

Equal to Insoluble Done Phosphate. . . 0-62 

Respectfully, your obedient servant, 
(Signed). C. F. Chandler. Ph. D., 

Prrf. Arudytical and Applied Chpmistry. 



230 - AMERICAN MANURES. 

We are at a loss to know whether the Pro- 
fessor, in rendering the soluble phosphoric acid, 
has reference to the hydrated or the anliydrous 
acid. If we regard it as hydrated, phosphoric 
acid, and compare the Professor's analysis with 
our analyses, the similarity is quite striking, for 
14*45 jDcr cent, of hydrated phosphoric acid 
correspond to 10*47 of the anliydrous acid, and 
10*47 o^ anliydrous phosphoric acid, or 14*45 of 
the hydrated, are equal to 22*86 of bone phosphate 
of lime rendered soltdAe, not "31*50" (31*54). 
If the 14*45 per cent, represent anliydrous phos- 
phoric acid, then 31*54, representing the amount 
of bone phosphate of lime rendered soluhle, is 
correct, and the three analyses show conclusively 
how the " Excellenza " during the few months 
of its existence has depreciated in value as re- 
gards its phosphoric acid. 

Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin are deserving of all 
credit in manufacturing and introducing this 
fertilizer ; and there should be no necessity of any 
subterfuge in recommending it to the public. 
Truthful, candid statements are all that is 
needed ; and if Messrs. Dugdale & Girvin will 
conform to these, and discard the trickeries of 
the fertilizing business as it now is, we doubt not 
that their efforts will be crowned with success, 
and they themselves will be convinced that 
" honesty " in this business, as well as in all 
others, " is the best policy." 



• 



ANALYSES. 



231 



ANALYSES OF BOWER-S COMPLETE MANURE. 

Percentage, or amonrit contained in 100. 

Mean. 



Water (expelled at 
2120 Fahrenheit) 

Nitrogen 

Nitrogen in or- 



game matter . . J 

Potash, soluble in i 

acidulated water j 

Phosphoric Acid] 

(anhydrous), sol- i 

able in water at j 

60O to 70O F . . . J 

Insoluble Phos- "| 

plioric Acid (an- > 

hydrous) ) 



1st 
Sample. 


2d 
Sample. 

7-30 


7-22 


0-21 


0-18 


0-60 


0-70 


0-95 


0-90 


2-07 


1-91 


20-42 


20-28 



7-26 



0-G5 



20 = 0-24 j 



Actual Am- 
monia. 



0-93 



1-99 = 3-28 



20-35=44-43 



Superphos- 
phate of 
Lime. 

' Bone Phos- 
, phate of 
L Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
duce the following amounts contained in a ton, 
or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 
the farmer : 

145-20 lbs. Water ' (a) 

4-80 

13-00 

18-60 

39-80 

407-00 



Actual Ammonia @ 

Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 
Potash @ 

Soluble Phosphoric Acid . . @ 
Insoluble " " . • @ 



0.00 per lb. 


^0.00 


0.25 


1.20 


0.15 


1.95 


0.08 


1.49 


0.121 " • 


4.98 


0.00 


0.00 



Total value as fertilizer $ 9. 62 

Value of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $11.62 

The above manure is sold at $52 per ton, in- 
volving a loss of $40.38, or 348 per cent, to the 
farmer on every ton. he purchases ; or, for manure 
alone, he pays 5i times as much as it is worth. 



232 AMERICAN MANURES. 

BOWEE'S COMPLETE MANURE. 

The above manure, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased from 
Messrs. Dixon, Sharpless & Co., Philadelphia. 
It is put up in bags marked 200 lbs. ; the one pur- 
chased weighed 190 lbs., being 10 lbs. less than 
it sliould have weighed, or a deficiency of 100 
lbs. to the ton. The mechanical condition of 
the manure was good. The following quota- 
tions from the manufacturer's circular will be 
valuable to the reader, from which he can make 
his own deductions 

No. 1. " All will of course agree that farm-yard or stable 
manure is a good fertilizer, yet unless it is properly rotted or 
prepared, and kept from the washing rains, its good qualities 
may be much impaired, and within my own experience but few 
farra9rs pay enough attention to the important point of having 
the manure in such a place as to prevent being leached out by 
rains. Take the best stable manure, however, and make a com- 
parison by analysis of its virtues with that of an artificial fertil- 
izer, as the 'Complete Manure,' it is found, estimating the cost 
(delivered) of farm-yard manure at $5.00 per ton, and the 
' Complete Manure ' at $60.00, (delivered,) that the actual 
value of the ' Complete Manure ' to the farmer is more than 
double its cost, when compared with the very best farm-yard 
manure." 

No. 2. "It must be borne in mind, that in order to achieve 
the results obtained by the ' Complete Manure,' a consid(;r- 
able proportion of the constituents must be in a form to make 
them be taken up at once by the rootlets of the plant ; that is 
to say, they must he easily dissolved in the water contained in 
the soil. It is true, that Nature, among all her other wonders, 
has provided means to render soluble these constituents, but 
the process has wisely been made a slow one ; the chemist can 



ANALYSES. 233 

provide the means to make sufficient for the growing crop 
dissolvable, the balance remaining in the soil to be acted upon 
by the air and water of the soil to provide food for future crops,' 

No. 3. " A benefit derived from the use of a powerful man 
ure, such as the ' Complete Manure,' is that it forces the young 
plant forward by reason of the large amount of soluble matter 
it contains. '^J'he importance of this cannot w^ell be overesti 
mated, as the plant soon reaches that degree of strength and 
toughness which will prevent an early frost from injuring, or 
some insect from devouring it ; hence it may be said to be par- 
ticularly applicable to cotton, tobacco, wheat, corn, potatoes, 
and other root vegetables, as all the young plants of these are 
subject to the ravages of tlie insect, or the blight of the frost.' 

No. 4. "In manufactured manures, much of their agricultural 
value depends upon the mechanical condition in which they are 
supplied, the extent to which the component parts have been 
pulverized and intermixed ; the richest manure, chemically speak 
ing, will be of little use unless it is moderately dry, reduced to 
fine powder, and its constituents thoroughly incorporated. This 
must be borne in mind in judging of the value of a manure, and 
a proportionate price ought to be allowed for the degree of com- 
pleteness with which these matters have been attended to. Al- 
though in theory the production of an artificial fertilizer is a 
very simple matter, in practice it is found somewhat trouble- 
some, from the difficulty of- producing a manageable article, and 
a great deal of experience and skill are required to prepare a 
manure of the requisite chemical strength, and mechanical 
condition." 

No. 5. "In speaking with farmers during the past season, 
many complaints have been met with of the inefficiency of some 
superphosphates, prepared guanos, poudrettes, and other so- 
called manures, some of them with high-sounding titles, having 
failed to produce the results their manufacturers claimed they 
would give. This has, no doubt, in some instances been the re- 
sult of a bad season, or bad farming, or some untoward cause 
which is unaccountable; but there is good reason to fear that 
it has been the result of adulteration.'' 

No. 6. " The adulteration of manures, as indeed of all other 
articles of commerce, is a practice that cannot be too strongly 



234 AMERICAN MANURES. 

conderanecl ; and it is much to be regretted that the laws of thig 
country afford too many chances for successfully carrying on 
this species of fraud." 

No. 7. " In the case of manures their adulteration is attended 
with several evils besides the more direct one of robbing those 
who purchase the adulterated article. The fact of manures 
being known to be extensively adulterated tends to restrict 
their use, and to withhold the good that a more extended use 
of these materials is calculated to confer both on the farmer 
and on the community. For the same reason the trade of 
honest manufacturers is injured and confined. Under the 
name of manures all kinds of mixtures are sold, often worth but 
a fraction of the price paid for them, and in too. many instances 
altogether worthless. The frauds practised by dishonest man- 
ure dealers consist of diluting or weakening of standard man- 
ures — by the admixture of less valuable or worthless material, 
as tanner's bark, road or street scrapings, old mortar, spent 
wood-ashes, coal ashes, or other material ; and in order to give 
them apparent value, animal matter with a horrid stench is 
mixed with these in some instances (many persons are induced 
to think that a manure, in order to be good, must have a vile 
smell, than which there can be no greater mistake). Such mix- 
tures are brought into the market as new compounds under all 
sorts of high-flown names, which often indicate properties in 
every way the reverse of those possessed by the so-called man- 
ures they represent." 

No. 8. '• By a rudimentary knowledge of Chemistry, manures 
can be tested with sufficient accuracy to assure their genuine- 
ness ; various operations upon the farm can be wonderfully im- 
proved by studying Nature's processes, for in these we see the 
working of the Divine hand, at once so wonderful, so simple, 
and so w^ell adapted to the wants of mankind. In Mechanics, 
we have a help which is daily being increased, by the genius of 
our people, and the farmer can, by devising various simple 
changes in machines, no doubt increase their usefulness, or the 
uses of them." 

No. 9. " I do not forget that science is in its infancy; there 
are numerous secrets which Nature refuses to give up, and 
which, with all the chemical and mechanical aids available, the 



ANALYSES. 235 

most arduous researches liave not been able to get from her, 
except by degrees ; as fresh discoveries come to Hglit, I will 
make every effort to take advantage of them in improving the 
* Complete Manure,' while farmers can at all times rely upon 
receiving ' the worth of thkir money ' when purchasing it." 

After the above, a brief breathing pause should 
be allowed to our readers. Such an extensive 
knowledge of Chemistry, as applied to Agricul- 
ture, should enable Mr. Bower to produce a 
'^ Complete Manure." But if our readers will 
compare these remarks of Mr. Bower with our 
analyses of his " Complete Manure," the ap- 
jDlication of the Fable of the mountain in labor^ 
when '' nascitur ridicidus mus''' (a miserable 
mouse was brought forth), will be appreciated. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

No. 1. " Messrs. Booth & Garrett, of Philadelphia, Chemists 
of high respectability, say, in speaking of the ' Complete Ma- 
nure,' in a note to Messrs. Dixon, Sharpless & Co., dealers in 
fertilizers : 

" The constitution of the above indicates a decided advance 
in the composition of a fertilizer, by the introduction of a con- 
siderable percentage of Potassa, and countenances the claim in- 
volved in the name ' Complete Manure.' " 

No. 2. " The report upon the ' Complete Manure,' made by 
Messrs. Williams & Moss, of Philadelphia, Chemists of large 
experience in the analysis of fertilizers, says : 

"We find from an analysis of your 'Complete Manure,' that 
the name you have given it is certainly warranted by its 
chemical composition ; in addition to thus cordially recommend- 
ing your fertilizer from a chemical stand point, we should state 
that its mechanical condition is most excellent, being such as to 
admit of its use in the drill without further preparation." 
16 



236 AMERICAN MANURES. 

No. 3. "Mining and Assay Office and Chemical Labora- 
tory, No. 57 Broadway, opposite Exchange 
Place, New York, October 10th, 1867. 
" Henry Bower, Esq., Philadelphia. 

" Dear Sir : — Enclosed please find results of an analysis of a 
sample of your ' Complete Manure,' taken from Dixon & 
Sharpless' warehouse, September 25th. 

" These results show at a glance the great merit your article 
possesses as a fertilizer, and warrant the opinion that it will 
take a leading rank among manures. The liberal proportions 
of soluble phosphoric acid, ammonia and potash, afford to soil 
a large amount of nutriment immediately available to growing 
crops, while the remainder of the phosphoric acid, becoming 
gradually soluble through atmospheric influences, assures a 
lasting supply of plant food. 

" The introduction of potash, and the nice adjustment of the 
proportions of the above ingredients, render the name you 
have given your fertilizer particularly appropriate, as it con- 
tains all the elements necessary to insure success, and I am 
confident that wherever it is used its reputation will rapidly 
extend. " Respectfully yours, 

•' C. Elton Buck.' 

No. 4. " Office State Geological Survey, 

New Brunswick, N. J.-, July 15th, 1869. 

" Dear Sir : — Your letter of May 20th was duly received. 
The five bags of your ' Complete Manure ' so generously sent 
to -the College Farm were also duly received. For this donation 
I desire to tender the thanks of the Trustees of the College, and 
to say that it was immediately used in trials upon corn, beets, 
and carrots, and on potatoes ; and also it has been subjected to 
chemical analysis. The results. of these will be given in the 
annual report upon the farm, which is made to the Legislature, 
and is printed and circulated extensively througliout the State. 
An earlier acknowledgment ought to have been made, but it 
has been delayed so as to send the chemical analysis, and that, 
though long expected, has but recently been completed. The 
crops upon which the ' Manure ' was tried are looking well. The 
results of the analysis show it to be a valuable fertilizer, and all 



ANALYSES. 



237 



that I have heard of it is in its favor. I hope to send you fur 
ther reports of it in the course of the season. 
" Respectfully yours, 

" George H. Cook, 
" To Henry Bower, Esq. State Geologist:' 

No. 5. "Laboratory of the Medical College, Queen 

STREET, Charleston, S. G., December 9th, 1869. 

*' This article certainly deserves the name it bears, i. e., of a 

Complete Manure— furnishing to the plant all the important 

elements of its food. 

" Charles U. Shepard, M. D. 
Inspector of Fertilizers for South Carolina" 

No. 6. ' Savannah, Ga., February 1st, 1870. 

" I take pleasure in saying that the accompanying analysis of 
Bower's Complete Manure, made for Messrs. Hacker & Molony, 
Savannah, Ga., warrants our confidence in its fertilizing proper- 
ties. Its amount of Ammonia, and its excellent supply of 
Phosphoric Acid, in a soluble state, will ensure the early growth 
and development of the plant, together with a fine fruitage, to 
which the Phosphoric Acid mainly contributes, and these re- 
sults may be expected for the first year, while the amount of in- 
soluble Phosphate remaining in the soil will, by slow chemical 
reaction going on during the suceeding Fall and Winter, pre- 
pare the land for a better crop during the year. 

"A Means, Inspector." 

The farmer after reading the above testnno- 
nials and comparing them with the analyses of 
the " Complete Manure " furnished by us, would 
naturally be induced to ask the following ques- 
tions : Where are the analyses of the " Complete 
Manure " furnished by these gentlemen ? Is it 
excessive modesty, or some other motive, that 
prevents Mr. Bower from pubHshingthem? Was 



238 AMERICAN MANURES. 

the " Complete Manure " made of a hetter quality, 
at the time these testimonials were given, than 
it is at present ? If it was not, what are w^e to 
characterize these chemists, who knowingly allow 
their names to be used to encourage the perpetra- 
tion of such a great fraud ? If these chemists 
gave candid and honest statements at the time, 
and its present deterioration is due to Mr. Bower, 
we think it is due to those of them that are 
honest and capable, and most of whose opinions 
should have weight with the community, and also 
to Mr. Bower himself, if he desires to he con- 
sidered an honest man, at once to withdraw these 
testimonials, and modify his circular so as to 
bring its statements within the bounds of truth ; 
or, if this be distasteful to him, let him make 
reparation to his customers, and in the future 
manufacture a better article than was sold to us 



ANALYSES. 



239 



ANALYSES OF THE PATAPSCO GUANO COM- 
PANY'S AMMONIATED SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE! 

Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 



Water (expelled at 
2120Fahrenheit). 

Nitrogen. 

Nitrogen in organic 
matter. 

Potash, soluble in 
acidulated water. 

Phosphoric Acid "^ 
(anhydrous), sol- 
uble in water at 
60° to TOO F. 

Insoluble Phos- 
phoric Acid (an- 
hydrous). 



1st 
Sample. 


2nd 
Sample. 


14-97 


15-06 


0-73 


0-82 


1-54 


1-58 


0-62 


0-65 


8-43 


8-21 


6-56 


6-69 



Mean. 



15-02 

0-78 = 
1-56 

0-64 



8-32=: 13-71^ 



6-63 = 14-47 



Q.g^S Actual Am- 
\ monia. 



Superphos- 
phate of 
Lime. 

BonePhos- 
phate of 
Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we 
deduce the following amounts, con tamed in a 
ton, or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a 
ton to the farmer : 

300-40 lbs. Water '. @ $ 0.00 per lb. $ 0.00 



19-00 " Actual Ammonia @ 

31-20 " Nitrogen in organic matter. @ 

12-80 " Potash @ 

166-40 " Soluble Phosphoric Acid. .. @ 

132-60 " Insoluble " " . . . @ 



0.25 

0.15 

0.08 

0.12^ 

0.00 



4.75 

4.68 

1.02 

20.80 

0.00 



Total value as fertilizer $3J .25 

Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $33.25 

The above phosphate is sold at $55 per ton, 
involving a loss of $21.75, or nearly 66 per cent, 
to the farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, in 
other words, he pays for it nearly I3 times as 
much as it is worth. 



240 AMERICAN MANURES. 

PATAPSCO GUANO COMPANY'S AMMO- 
NIATED SOLUBLE PHOSPHATE! 

The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
company's office, Baltimore. It is put up in bags 
marked 167 lbs. ; the bag purchased weighed 
170 lbs. Its mechanical condition was very bad. 
We found hard lumps in it, as large as a 50-lb. 
cannon ball; as the manufacturers recommend 
this article to be drilled, we are in doubt whether 
they meant the drill of the farmer, or the drill 
of the quarryman. From our experience in pul- 
verizing the article, we incline to think it was 
the latter. This is a very objectionable feature 
of this fertilizer, and must necessarily give the 
farmer considerable trouble. In an attempt to 
conform with the laws of the State of Maryland, 
there were some letterins; and fi2:ures on the bao^, 
wdiich we are charitable enough to concede were 
intended for an analysis. After considerable 
trouble, we set down the following, which if not 
correct, we shall feel under obligation to the com- 
pany if they will notify us : 

Soluble Phosphates 24-00 

Insoluble Phosphates IS'OO 

Ammonia 400 

Salts of Potash 7-00 

This, to say the least, is a garbled analj'sis. 
It states that this superphosphate contains 24 



ANALYSES. 241 

per cent, of " Soluble Phosphates," but as to the 
amount of phosphoric acid in the " Soluble Phos- 
phates " we are left entirely in the dark. Again, 
we are informed that the superphosphate con- 
tains 7 per cent, of " Salts of Potash," but as 
to the amount of potash we remain uninformed. 
By referring to our analyses, the reader will no- 
tice less than one per cent, of potash, and by 
converting this potash into the sulphate or mu- 
riate, he will obtain less than two per cent., which 
shows a great discrepancy in the analyses. We 
quote the following from the circular of these 
manufacturers : 

" With their increased facihties, improved machinery, and 
skilled workmen, under the superintendence of 

DR. G. A. LIEBIG, 

who personally selects and tests every article used in its manu- 
facture, and is constantly present at the works and directs 
every department, is a sufficient guarantee that its manufac- 
ture can be relied upon as being equal to^anything which can 
be produced. 

" The company continues to use the celebrated 

NAYASSA PHOSPHATE, 

(the richest phosphatic guano now known) which, together 
with the other ingredients, and its careful preparation, produce 
those prompt and permanent effects which have uniformly been 
shown upon all crops upon which it has been applied." 



242 



AMERICAN MANURES. 



ANALYSES OF NEKDLBS' IMPROVED SUPERPHOS- 
PHATE OF LIME. 

Fercentage, or amount contained in 100. 





1st 
Sample. 


2d 
Sample. 

5-59 

0-19 
0-63 


Mean. 


AV ater (expelled at 1 

212° Fahrenheit) ) 

Nitrogen 


5-63 

0-17 
0-60 


5-61 

0-18== 0-22 1 

0-62 


Actual Am- 


Nitrogen in org. \ 
matter. j 


monia. 


Potash, soluble in ) 
acidulated water i 


trace 


trace 


trace 




Phosphoric Acid' 
(anhydrous), sol- I 
iible in water at 
60° to 70° F ... J 










trace 


trace 


trace 












Insoluble Phos- \ 






f 


Bone Phos- 


phoric Acid (an- - 


22-43 


22-55 


22-49=49-10 J 


phate of 


hydrous) 






. 


Lime. 



From the mean of the above analyses, we de- 
duce the following amounts, contained in a ton, 
or 2000 lbs., together with the value of a ton to 



the farmer : 

112-20 lbs. Water 

4-40 " Actual Ammonia 

12-40 *' Nitrogen in org. matter... . 
Trace Potash 


@ 1 
. @ 


0.00 pel 

0.25 

0.15 

0.08 

0.12^ 

0.00 


•lb. 

u 
(( 

K 

li 
(( 


$0.00 
1.10 
l.^^li 

00 


Trace Soluble Phos. Acid . 
449-80 '' Insoluble Phos. Acid 


0.00 
0.00 


Total value as fertilizer 


$2.96 
2.00 


Value of bags (say) 









Total value to farmer 


4.96 



The above Phosphate is sold at $47 per ton, 
involving a loss to the farmer of $42.04, or 847 
per cent, on every ton he purchases ; or, taking 
the manure alone, he pays for it nearly 16 times 
as much as it is worth. 



ANALYSES 243 

NEEDLES' IMPROVED SUPERPHOS- 
PHATE OF LIME. 

The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
manufacturer's office, Philadelphia. It is put up 
in 200 lb. bags; the one purchased weighed 187 
lbs., being 13 lbs. less than it should be with the 
bag included, or 130 lbs. on a ton. The mechani- 
cal condition of this fertilizer was good, and 
could be easily applied by a drill. When we 
have said that, we have said all that is possible 
for us to say in its favor. Therefore we make 
the following selections from Mr. Needles' circu- 
lar, which show conclusively that even tnith, 
which costs nothing but an honest intention, is 
too valuable to waste on his worthless product : 

1. "It is always of the'sarae pure quality." 

2. " It is a permanent enriclicr of the soil." 

3. " It loses none of its strength by exposure to the air." 

4. " It is the cheapest Phosphate in the country." 

5. "We were the originators of the preparation of this well 
known manure in Philadelphia, our house having- been engaged 
for over twenty-one years in the manufacture and sale of Con- 
centrated Fertilizers." 

In commenting on this fertilizer, and the above 
remarks, only a few words are necessary, as the 
fertilizer can only be characterized as a scanda- 
lous cheat and an unmitigated swindle on the 
community. 



244 AMERICAN MANURES. 

The reader will notice from the analyses that 
it contains only a trace of Soluble Phosphoric 
Acid ; consequently, it has not the least preten- 
sion to be called a " Superphosphate." It is a 
fraud in v/eight as well as in quality, and if Mr. 
Needles has been manufacturing a similar arti- 
cle, and giving such deficient weight for the past 
twenty-one years, common justice, and common 
law, should have sufficient power to restrain him 
from continuing his criminal practices, and pun- 
ish him according to his deservings. And if 
twenty-one years have been devoted to such 
practices, the remainder of his life should be de- 
voted to making a partial atonement for the 
wrongs perpetrated on his customers. 

The article is simply ground mineral phos- 
phate, with a possible scattering of bones, and if 
there was any Sulphuric Acid used in its prepa- 
ration, there was not a sufficient quantity to 
liberate but a trace of Soluble Phosphoric Acid, 
so that it may only be considered a raw mate- 
rial for the manufacture of a Superphosphate. 
Such outrageous frauds as these are calculated to 
excite the indignation of all the community. 

The fact that such frauds can be successfully 
practised for twenty-one years, proves conclu- 
sively the necessity of just such information as 
is given in this book 



ANALYSES. 



245 



ANALYSES OF THE BROMOPHYTE FERTILIZER. 
Percentage, or amount contained in 100. 



Water (expelled at 
2120 Fahrenheit). 

Nitrogen. 

Nitrogen in organic 
matter. 

Potash, soluble in 
acidulated water. 

Phosphoric Acid ^ 
(anhydrous), sol- I 
uble in water at 
60O to 70° F. 

Insoluble Phos- 
phoric Acid (an- 
hydrous). 



Ist 
Sample. 


2d 
Sample. 


13-02 


13-20 


0-18 


0-17 


0-75 


0-83 


0-23 





trace 


trace 


1-51 






Mean. 



1311 

0-18 = 0-22 
0-79 



f ActualAm- 
1 monia. 



trace 



From the analyses, we deduce the following 
amounts, contained in a ton, or 2000 lbs., together 
with the value of a ton to the farmer : 

262-20 lbs. Water @ $0.00 per lb. $ 0.00 

4-40 " Actual Ammonia @ 0.25 " 1.10 

15-80 " Nitrogen in organic mat. @ 0.15 " 2.37 

4-60 " Potash @ 0.08 ** 0.37 

Trace Soluble Phos. Acid @ 0.12i " 0.00 

30-20 " Insoluble '* " . @ 0.00 "' 0.00 

Total value as fertilizer $ 3.84 

Yalue of bags (say) 2.00 

Total value to farmer $ 5.84 

The above fertilizer is sold at $40 per ton, in- 
volving a loss of $34.16, or 585 per cent, to the 
farmer on every ton he purchases ; or, for the 
manure alone, he pays $36.16, which is more 
than 9 times as much as it is worth. 



246 AMERICAN MANURES. 

THE BEOMOPHYTE FERTILIZER. 

The above fertilizer, from which samples for 
analyses were selected, was purchased at the 
company's office, Philadelphia. Its mechanical 
condition was good, which is ahnost the only 
good thing it can conscientiously boast of We 
make the following selections from the circular 
of this company, with the analyses of the Bro- 
mophyte by Prof. Blaney : 

"In the manufacture of Bromophyte, the most scrupulous 
regard is paid to the hiws of chemistry; and to distinguish this 
fertihzer from all others — which we neither endorse nor con- 
demn — we have called it Bromophyte. This term is taken 
from two Greek words, wliich signify /oocZ for plants." 

*' The farmer and planter will see at once that his interest is 
our interest. We cannot hope to succeed unless we make good 
our promises. Nothing is surer than our failure if we do not 
give the farmer the worth of his money. We can, therefore, 
have no motive in deceiving any one." 

" We offer this fertilizer at about one-half the cost of guano, 
while its value, we are led to believe, is equal to if not better 
than the best Peruvian." 

"The attention of the Fruit Growers' Association of Wash- 
ington was lately called to this Bromophyte, and a member of 
the Association, Professor Thomas Taylor, a well-known 
chemist, at a meeting held August 3, 1869, read a paper upon 
the subject, from which we make several extracts :" 

" Mr. President and Gknit.emen : — I have here a sample of 
a valuable fertilizer, which is attracting much attention at this 
time. It is known by the name of Bromophyte, which signi- 
fies jp?a7ii /ood. Its base is human excreta, including urine, 
and is submitted to a process of deodorization by which it is 
deprived of its smell. 

"The efficacy of peat, which is used, is due to the soluble 
salts which it contains, and to its property of absorbing am- 
monia from the atmosphere — having an absorbing power of 
seventy-two times its own bulk. 



ANALYSES. ' 247 

" Marl, one of the constituents of Bromophyte, is valuable 
for various reasons — ^it is a composition of clay and shells, the 
clay being the more important substan.ce of the two. Its very 
valuable properties were first pointed out by Professor Way, 
Chemist of the English Royal Agricultural Society. He says 
that clay will decompose the salts of ammonia, potash and soda, 
and retain their bases." 

"At the close of Mr. Taylor's remarks, Mr. William Saun- 
ders, of the Agricultural Department, proposed a vote of 
thanks to Mr. Taylor for his valuable remarks, which was 
unanimously carried. 

*' The following statement has been received from Professor 
Blaney, of Chicago, relative to the merits of Bromophyte : 

" Chicago, October 26, 1870. 
'* This is to certify that I have examined the specimens of 
Bromophyte submitted to me, and have found the same to be 
composed as follows : 

Yolatile matter, organic matter, water and a 

trace of free ammonia 59*05 

Inorganic matter 40'95 

The Bromophyte contains of salts 40' 95 per cent., namely : 

Sulphate of Lime 17-6765 

Phosphate of Lime 1-4922 

Phosphate of Magnesia 1-1335 

Carbonate of Magnesia 2*2613 

Chloride of sodium 2*0540 

Sesquioxide of Iron and Alumina 5*0790 

Insoluble Silicates 11*2690 

Chloride of Potassium, a tra^e. 

Total 40*9655 

Gain -0155 

40*9500 
" The Bromophyte was found by organic analysis to contain 
nitrogen, 3*92 per cent., equivalent to ammonia, 4*76 per cent. 

"James V. T. Blaney, 
^^ Analytical and Consulting Chemist." 
<' P. S. — It will be seen, by comparing with analysis of guano, 
that Bromophyte is two per cent, the stronger." 



248 AMERICAN MANURES. 

After making an analysis of this " Bromo- 
phyte/' and knowing its composition and value, 
we doubt whether the writer of the circular, or 
even Professors Taylor and Blaney were in 
earnest in their encomiums of this article. We 
rather think these gentlemen have endeavored to 
perpetrate a practical joke on the farmers. That 
any chemist (and Prof Taylor is represented to 
be one), should seriously recommend the use of 
peat and marl, clay and shells in a high-priced 
fertilizer that sells for two cents per lb., is almost 
incredible ; or that Prof Blaney should seriously 
say that it is two per cent, stronger than guano, 
is certainly beyond belief. 

The farmers who have used the article seem 
to have been in the same vein of humor, so pal- 
pably exhibited by the facetious Professors Tay- 
lor and Blaney, as the following specimens of 
their certificates will show : 

GKEAT ON TUENIP TOPS. 

"Washington, D. C, April 1, 1869. 
*' Eandall Fish, Esq. 

"Sir: — In reply to your note, inquiring about your fertilizer, 
I am happy to say that it will work wonders. 

" I tried it last season on some turnips as late as the 1st of 
October, and I never saw such a crop of tops in my life. Of 
course, it was too late to fetch a full crop, yet some were as 
large as hens' eggs. 

" I do not hesitate to say that I think it superior to any ferti- 
lizer in the market, as it will benefit the ground while it stimu- 
lates the present crop. I have used it with the greatest suc- 
cess, and have found it to be better than any other, having 



ANALYSES. 249 

used it side by side with the Patapsco and other fertiUzers, and 
it far exceeds them. It has proven satisfactory to Dr. Nichols, 
the Superintendent of the Insane Asylum, as he has this spring 
purchased five tons of it. " Samuel A. Smith, 

" Gardener at the Insane AsylumJ* 

We should expect jusi such a certificate from 
an Insane Asylum. 

GREAT ON CUCUMBERS. 

" Washington, D. C, August 18, 1870. 
" Randall Fish, Esq. 

" Dear Sir : — I have used your fertilizer, called Bromophyte, 

on three acres of cucumbers, on my farm at Mt. Yernon, and 

can say that I believe it to be a first-rate article. A few rows 

I left without any fertilizer, on some I put Peruvian Guano, 

and on some Patapsco Guano. Those without any fertilizers 

are very poor, but where your fertilizer was used they are very 

fine, and much better than the vines that were fertilized with 

the Peruvian or Patapsco Guano. "Dr. E. P. Howland, 

" No. 27 Four-and-a-Half Street" 

DODGE ON BROMOPHYTE. 

" Washington, D. 0. 
*'I have seen the effects and examined the character of the 
fertilizer manufactured by Randall Fish, and am satisfied it is 
among the best now offered to the public. I have used it on 
my strawberries and other plants, and find the effect upon their 
growth superior to that of any other fertilizer I have ever 
used. I shall want more. 

" It eff"ects wonders on every kind of vegetable to which I have 
applied it, making vegetation grow on barren soil. 

*' Yery respectfully, 

"A. T. C. Dodge." 

This, we think, is a very good specimen of 
" dodge." As it makes vegetation grow on bar- 
ren soily Bromophyte must contain the essence 
of strawberries. Who will eat strawberries after 
this? 



250 AMERICAN MANURES. 

GASS ON BROMOPHYTE. 

" Gelex, WashinoxTon Co., August 26, 1869. 
" Mk. Randall Fish : 

*' I have used your Bromophy to on tomatoes, squashes, cucum- 
bers and on corn, and must say that it exceeds my expecta- 
tions. I beheve that it is better than any fertihzer now in use. 
I have tried most all kinds in the market, and this is the best 
I have ever found. I have examined the corn to-day, and find, 
where your fertilizer was used, it was a deep green, and where 
other fertilizers were used beside it, the great drought had 
turned the leaves yellow, and the stocks were much smaller. 

" Very respectfully, 

"John Gass." 

We fear the corn was not so green as the 
buyer of the Bromophyte. Taken altogether it 
is a very gassi/ certificate. 

A 20,000 POUNDER CERTIFICATE. 

(2Vie biggest gun known.) 

" Alexandria, Ya., March 15, 1870. 
** Randall Fish, Esq. 

" Dear Sir : — Please send me ten tons of your Bromophyte, 
the most economical manure, which insures the quickest and 
best returns of any I have ever used. Rely on me as a custo- 
mer while I have any land to cultivate. 

" Yours, very respectfully, 

" J. Millard." 

If the Bromophyte Mr. MiRard purchased 
was no better than that sold to us, and he con- 
tinues to go it so strong on Bromophyte, he will 
soon have no land to cultivate — it will be in the 
hands of the sheriff. 

A CERTIFICATE FROM THE "LAND OF DREAMS." 

"Norfolk, Ya., May 13, 1870. 
" C. C. Brown, Esq. 

" Dear Sir : — I have been experimenting last fall and this 
spring with your Bromophyte. It beats any fertilizer I know 



I 



ANALYSES. 251 

of. For early truck of all kinds it is all that can be desired. It 
is destined to take the place of nearly all the so-called fertili- 
zers, now so numerous. For radishes, it beats all I ever 
dreamed of. I do not dare to tell how short a time it took to 
produce for me the finest radishes I ever saw. 

'' Yours, etc., 

" George S. Oldfield, 

"■ Formerly Judge of County Court." 

Query. — Does the Judge often dream of 
radishes — it must be an interesting subject for a 
Judge. We shall next expect to hear of the 
Judge dreaming of " turnip tops." 

FISHING FOE DODGE. 

" Washington, D. C., June 29, 1870. 
" Randall Fish, Esq. 

" Dear Sir : — In reply to your favor of to-day, I would say 
that I have used the Bromophyte — Fish's — in my garden in this 
city for two years, and do not desire anything- better for straw- 
berries. In fact, it seems to impart a remarkably strong and 
healthy growth to any and every vegetable to which I have 
applied it, and I believe it is superior to any fertilizer in the 
market, not excepting the Peruvian. 

" Respectfully, yours, etc., 

"A. T. C. Dodge." 

Another specimen of '^ dodge ;" being better 
than Peruvian Guano, we think it slightlj 
" fishy." 

The reader will notice that these certificates 
are given by farmers in the vicinity of Wash- 
ington. The Bromophyte to which they have 
reference being prepared there. We do not say 
that excreta at Washington are richer than at 
Philadelphia ; but it is possible that the Wash- 
17 



252 AMERICAN MANURES. 

ington manufacturers may be more honest, and 
make a better article than their Philadelphia 
brethren — it is almost impossible that they 
could make a worse. The use of these certifi- 
cates by the Philadelphia Company is literally 
stealing the thunder of the excreta of Wash- 
ington. 

METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 

The methods of analysis employed to deter- 
mine the amount of nitrogen, actual ammonia, 
and potash, and of phosphoric acid in the several 
manures, of which analyses are given in this 
chapter, are of too intricate a nature to be un- 
derstood by the general reader. Hence we state 
the methods only in general terms, with such 
remarks and particulars as will enable profes- 
sional chemists, into whose hands our work may 
fall, to estimate the carefulness with which they 
have been made. 

METHOD FOR TOTAL NITROGEN. 

From about 30 grammes of the finely pul- 
verized and intimately mixed substance 1 to 
2 grammes were taken for analysis, which was 
made according to Varrentrapp and Wills' me- 
thod. We remark, that the actual amount of 
Nitrogen was calculated from the actual amount 
of metallic platinum obtained, and not from the 



METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 253 

weight of the precipitate, as is sometimes done : 
the former being considered the most reliable. 

METHOD FOR ACTUAL AMMONIA AND POTASH. 

Substance = 50 grammes. 

Fluid = 250 c.c. 

Fluid taken = 25 c.c. = 5 grammes substance. 

The substance in an evaporating dish was 
treated : first, with small quantities of water at 
60° to 70° ; then boiled successively in water 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid ; and finally, 
washed on a filter with boiling water, till the 
filtrate measured nearly 250 c.c. 

The ammonia was determined according to 

SOHLOESING'S PROCESS. 

Strength of Soda Solution, 3.06 c.c. ::= 1 c.c. Normal Sulphuric Acid. 

The potash was determined as potassio-bichlo- 
ride of platinum. 

METHOD FOR TOTAL PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

Substance = 20 grammes. 

Fluid = 1000 c.c. 

Fluid taken = 50 c.c. = 1 gramme substance. 

The hydrochloric acid solution, with the addi- 
tion of several drops of concentrated nitric acid, 
was evaporated completely to dryness, and the 
residue treated with dilute hydrochloric acid. To 
the solution thus obtained, there was added; 
first, citric acid, in quantity sufficient; then 
ammonia ; then, acetic acid, each slightly in ex- 
cess ; and finally, to the nearly boiling solution, 



254 AMERICAN MANURES. 

oxalate of ammonia was added. The precipitate 
obtained was collected at once on a double filter, 
and to the cool and strongly ammoniacal filtrate, 
were added, 6 to 10 c.c. of an ammoniacal aramo- 
nio-sulpliate of magnesia solution — each c.c. of 
which corresponds to 0.0358 gramme anhydrous 
phosphoric acid. The filtrate and wash water 
measured 250 to 300 c.c, and for every 54c.c. of 
the same, 0.000637 gramme phosphoric acid was 
allowed. 

METHOD FOR SOLUBLE PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

Substance ^= 20 grammes. 

Fluid ■ = 1000 c.c. 

Fluid taken = 100 c. c.= 2 grammes substance. 

The substance was triturated in a mortar with 
distilled water, at 60° or 70°,'' the powder allowed 
to settle, and the fluid decanted. This operation 
was repeated till I litre of fluid was obtained, 
when the powder was collected on a filter and 
washed with distilled water till the filtrate mea- 
sured one litre. The phosphoric acid, as in the 
previous instance, was determined gravimetri- 
cally. 

Note. — In one or two instances, instead of 1 to 2 grammes, 
10 grammes of the substance were taken for the phosphoric acid 
determination. 

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 

Manufacturers of fertilizers attach great im- 
portance to the certificates of farmers, and it is 
considered a strong point as an evidence of the 



CONCLUDING REMARKS. 255 

superior quality of their products; hence they 
procure as many of them as possible. Two ad- 
vantages are thus gained : First. It effectually 
closes the farmer's mouth for subsequent unfavor- 
able criticism. Second. Every farmer's opinion 
has weight in the circle in which he moves, and 
his favorable report of a fertilizer induces others 
to give it a trial. Thus the business of these 
manufacturers is increased, and the farmer un- 
wittingly becomes a party to their frauds, and 
when his neighbors find that they are cheated, 
he receives his share of blame. Hence ftirmers 
should be very careful in giving these loosely 
worded recommendations, which benefit no one 
but the manufacturers. Those who have given 
these certificates know how they have been pro- 
cured ; personal friendship for the manufacturer 
or dealer, has led many to give favorable re-, 
ports, we doubt not against their better judg- 
ment, while with others, perhaps, the desire of 
seeing their name in print has its influence. 

Certificates are a part of the stock in trade of 
qjiachery, and no honestly conducted business 
needs them. Besides the certificates given to 
different manufacturers when taken collectively 
do not amount to anything, because each man- 
ure sold is represented by the certificates to be 
the best. Such conflicting statements are with- 
out value as evidence ; consequently, the fiirmer 



256 AMERICAN MANURES. 

is as much puzzled in the selection of a good 
manure, as he would be without seeing the 
certificates. 

If this business had been legitimately con- 
ducted, and the price regulated by the quality 
and condition of the valuable constituents of the 
fertilizer, manufacturers would have no occasion 
to resort to customers' certificates. 

There is another class of certificates that, un- 
fortunately, do not meet the public eye, namely : 
The complaints of those who have realized that 
they have been swindled in the purchase of these 
manures. These certificates would present an 
interesting sequel to the others, and in number 
as well as in force, would completely overshadow 
them. If time and space permitted, we could 
give a long list of these negative certificates that 
would be anything but interesting readuig for 
the manufacturers. An illustration of the un- 
reliability of certificates is seen in the samples 
we have given from the users of the Bromophyte, 
a manure that is almost worthless. Some of its 
users certify that it is better than Peruvian 
Guano, or the Patapsco Ammoniated Phosphate, 
the latter, according to our analyses, being one 
of the best superphosphates now made in this 
country. Many certificates are given before the 
crop is harvested ; such premature statements 
must be very unreliable. Farmers should realize 



CONCLUDING REMARKS. 257 

the importance of knowing the source of the 
henefits realized before giving certificates. It 
may be due to a favorable season, to substances 
already in the soil, or to the manure, or to all three 
combined. If the farmer sees a favorable ap- 
pearance in his crop, he is too apt at once to 
attribute it exclusively to the bought fertilizer, 
forgetting what he must have frequently seen, 
when using stable manure alone, that one year 
a good crop may be raised, and the next time, 
though equally well cultivated and manured, a 
poor one. It has been shown that the amounts 
required of the valuable constituents of crops are 
very small. Hence, if the so-called concentrated 
fertilizers contain but a little of what is really 
needed, its effect on the crop would be apparent 
But our farmers should bear in mind that they 
pay exorUtant prices for the benefits received. 
If they apply 400 lbs. of a fertihzer costing $50 
per ton, it would be $10 to the acre, and they 
should have clear views of the amount of any 
crop that should be expected from such an out- 
lay. As an illustration, 25 bushels of wheat 
with the straw requires : 

27-95 lbs. of Phosphoric Acid @ $0.12| per lb $3.49 

39-65" ''Potash @ 0.08 " .... 3.17 

46-60" "Nitrogen @ 0.15 " 6.99 



'%i^\ $13.65 

Hence, if an outlay of $13.65 on an acre should 



258 AMERICAN MANURES. 

produce 25 bushels of wheat with the straw, an 
outlay of $10 to an acre should produce over 18 
bushels of wheat with the straw, in addition to 
what could be produced without the application 
of fertilizers, or if we allow half of the nitrogen 
to be represented by actual ammonia at 25 cents 
per lb., an outlay of $10 to the acre should pro- 
duce 14 J bushels. This calculation can be 
readily applied to other crops from the same 
data, and from it the farmer can see how small 
the amount of benefit, in increased crops, he has 
derived from the use of these fraudulent manures 
in proportion to the money invested. We are 
quite sure if the farmer had correct views on 
the subject, he would no more think of giving 
certificates to these manufacturers, than he 
would of giving a certificate of good character 
to the burglar who had broken into his house 
and stolen his money, but spared his life, or to 
the thief who had stolen his horse and failed to 
set fire to his barn. 

The reader should now be fully convinced 
from the facts stated and analyses given, of the 
absolute necessity of National and State legisla- 
tion to protect the farmers and the public- from 
the rapacity of manufacturers of fertilizers. 
There are Grain, Flour, Liquor, Tobacco, Lea- 
ther, Oil, Drug and other Inspectors, appointed 
to protect purchasers and honest manufacturers 



CONCLUDING KEMARKS. 259 

and dealers. Fertilizers are equal in importance 
to any of those commercial articles mentioned, 
while there are greater facilities for fraud. In 
England and other European countries, the 
prices of these fertilizers are fixed by the 
amount and value of the fertilizing elements 
contained in them, according to the manner in- 
dicated in this book ; and in this matter, we are 
far behind those countries we are accustomed to 
style slow. In those countries, concentrated fer- 
tilizers are inspected by government officials. As 
the result of the rigid inspection laws of Ger- 
many, purchasers are protected. We quote from 
the circular of George Charles Zimmer, at Man- 
heim, one of the largest manufacturers of fer- 
tilizers in Germany, and give three analyses of 
the superphosphates manufactured by him, to 
show the operation of the law : 

These fertilizers are always sold and delivered of an ap- 
proved, uniform, superior quality, and their ingredients war- 
ranted ; samples of the same are deposited with the Central 
Agricultural Department of the Grand Duchy of Baden, at 
Carlsruhe, under whose control the products of the factory are 
placed by law. The monthly official analyses of supplies on 
hand in the manufactory, are published from time to time in 
the Weekly Journal of the Agricultural Society of the Grand 
Duchy of Baden, and every purchaser of at least half a ton at 
one time of one of these superphosphates, has the privilege to 
transmit (free of charge) with enclosure of the original invoice, 
a sample of the same to Doctor J. Nessler, the President of the 
Experimental Station, at Carlsruhe, in order to be analyzed, 
Iree of expense, to the purchaser. Furthermore, these fertilizers 
are subject to the control of the Agricultural Societies of Hes- 



260 AMERICAN MANURES. 

sen on the Rhine, Rhenish Prussia, etc., and the results of their 
investigations are communicated to the public from time to 
time, in their respective agricultural papers. 

No. 1 — Analysis of Coprolite Superphosphate. 

Pei-Gentage. Equal to 

Soluble Phos-) m +« n i« +^ iq (Superphosphate 

phoric Acid, J ^^ ^^ ^^ - ^^ *^ 1^ I of Lime. 

Insoluble Phos- 1 o +^ ^ c +^ o f Bone Phosphate 

phoric Acid, I 3 to 4 = 6 to 8 I ^^ ^ime 

No. 2 — Analysis of Bone Meal Superphosphate. 

Percentage. Equal to 

Soluble Phos- 1 ^3 _ I Superphosphate 

phoric Acid, J [of Lime. 

Insoluble Phos- ■) o +^ ^i n a-^ o f Bone Phosphate 

phoric Acid, I 3 to 4 = 6 to 8 I ^f Lime.^ 

Nitrogen 0*5 to 1 

No. 3. — Analysis of Baker Guano Superphosphate. 

Percentage. Equal to 

Toricicit} i« t» 2» = ■'' '" '' rTLt^'^'* 

Insoluble Phos- "I ^ . „ a ^ o f Bone Phosphate 

phoric Acid, j 6 o (of Lime. 

On comparing the above analyses of super- 
phosphates made in Germany, with those made 
by our hoastful manufacturers, the reader will 
notice that their lowest grade superphosphates 
contain more soluble phosphoric acid than our 
hest, and that the insoluble phosphoric acid (3 to 
4 per cent.) contained in those made at Man- 
heim, is about equal to the average amount of 
soluble phosphoric acid, in American commercial 
manures. 



THE END. 

3477 



